THEME TWO: Kings, Farmers and Towns
Introduction
The chapter covers the significant changes that took place in Indian society between 600 BCE and 600 CE.
The period saw the rise of states and empires, changes in agricultural practices, the growth of urban centers, and the emergence of new social and political structures.
Historical evidence from this period comes from inscriptions, coins, and archaeological findings. Epigraphy, or the study of inscriptions, has been particularly useful in reconstructing this history.
Prinsep and Piyadassi: Decoding Inscriptions
2.1 James Prinsep and Deciphering Brahmi
One of the most important developments in Indian history occurred in the 1830s when James Prinsep, an officer in the East India Company, deciphered the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts used in ancient Indian inscriptions.
Many inscriptions referenced a king named Piyadassi ("pleasant to behold"), who was later identified as Ashoka, one of India’s greatest rulers.
Prinsep’s discovery helped historians reconstruct early Indian political history and understand the lineages of various dynasties.
2.2 The Impact of Inscriptions
Inscriptions provided new insights into political, economic, and social developments. These records often detailed the achievements of rulers, religious donations, and administrative orders.
Ashoka’s edicts, found on rocks and pillars, are some of the most valuable sources, giving direct access to the ideas and policies of the ruler.
The Earliest States: The Mahajanapadas
3.1 The Sixteen Mahajanapadas
By the sixth century BCE, India was divided into sixteen large states, known as mahajanapadas.
These states were the first major political entities in the region. They included Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti.
Some states were ruled by kings, while others, such as the Vajji sangha, were oligarchies where power was shared by several leaders (rajas).
Each mahajanapada had a capital city, often fortified, and resources to maintain armies and bureaucracies.
3.2 Magadha: The Most Powerful Mahajanapada
Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada by the fourth century BCE.
Its success is attributed to several factors: fertile land, rich iron ore resources for making tools and weapons, and strategic control over Ganga River trade routes.
The rulers of Magadha, such as Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, and Mahapadma Nanda, were known for their political and military ambitions.
The Mauryan Empire: India’s First Major Empire
4.1 Chandragupta Maurya and the Mauryan Dynasty
The Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 321 BCE. He expanded his empire across northern India and even into parts of Central Asia.
Chandragupta’s successor, Ashoka, extended the empire further and became one of the most well-known rulers in world history.
4.2 Ashoka’s Dhamma
Ashoka is remembered for his adoption of Buddhism after the bloody Kalinga War. He spread the message of dhamma (moral law) through his inscriptions.
His edicts focused on respecting elders, non-violence, religious tolerance, and kindness to all living beings.
Ashoka appointed dhamma mahamattas, officers who spread these moral teachings throughout the empire.
Administering the Mauryan Empire
5.1 Major Political Centers
The Mauryan Empire was administratively divided into five major centers: Pataliputra (the capital), Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.
The empire was too vast to be controlled uniformly, so administrative authority was likely strongest near the capital and provincial centers.
Taxila and Ujjayini were located on major trade routes, while Suvarnagiri was important for its access to gold mines.
5.2 The Army and Administration
Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador to Chandragupta’s court, described the Mauryan administration as well-organized, with subcommittees managing different branches of the military (foot soldiers, cavalry, elephants, etc.).
The military was crucial for maintaining order and expanding the empire.
Kingship and Divine Authority
6.1 Chiefs and Kings in the South
In the Deccan and South India, powerful chiefs ruled kingdoms, such as the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
These chiefdoms thrived on long-distance trade, and rulers often derived their authority from religious and cultural traditions.
6.2 The Kushanas and Divine Kingship
The Kushanas (first century BCE to first century CE) ruled over large parts of Central Asia and North India.
Kushana rulers, like Kanishka, were known for portraying themselves as devaputra ("sons of god"). Large statues of Kushana kings suggest they considered themselves god-like figures.
The Changing Countryside: Agriculture and Society
7.1 Agricultural Expansion
Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, Indian society saw major developments in agriculture, particularly in the Ganga and Kaveri river valleys.
The introduction of the iron-tipped ploughshare increased agricultural productivity, especially in areas with high rainfall. Transplantation methods for paddy cultivation further boosted yields.
7.2 Social Differentiation in Villages
Increased agricultural production led to growing social differentiation. There were large landowners, small peasants, and landless laborers.
The term gahapati referred to a wealthy landowner who controlled resources and people in the village.
7.3 Land Grants and New Rural Elites
From the early centuries CE, land grants became common, especially to Brahmanas and religious institutions. These grants helped expand agriculture into new areas.
Land grants also created new rural elites who controlled large areas of land and collected taxes from peasants.
Urban Centers and Trade
8.1 Growth of Cities
Cities like Pataliputra, Mathura, and Ujjayini became centers of trade, administration, and culture.
These cities were located along major trade routes, both overland and sea-based, connecting India with Central Asia, West Asia, and the Mediterranean.
8.2 Craft Production and Trade Networks
Craft production thrived in urban centers, with artisans producing goods like pottery, metalwork, and textiles. Guilds (shrenis) regulated production and trade.
Trade routes extended across the Arabian Sea to East Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia.
Goods traded included spices, textiles, pearls, ivory, and metals. Indian traders also exchanged goods with the Roman Empire.
Coins and the Economy
The introduction of punch-marked coins around the sixth century BCE facilitated trade and economic transactions.
The Kushanas and the Guptas issued large quantities of gold coins, symbolizing the wealth and economic prosperity of their reigns.
By the sixth century CE, the use of gold coins declined, likely due to changes in trade patterns and the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Conclusion
The period between 600 BCE and 600 CE was one of great transformation in Indian history. The rise of states, the development of cities, and the expansion of trade networks contributed to the growth of Indian civilization.
Inscriptions, coins, and texts from this period provide valuable insights into the political, economic, and social life of early India.
