THEME THREE: Kinship, Caste and Class
Introduction
Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, major changes occurred in the political and economic landscape of India. These changes also impacted social structures, particularly in how families, caste systems, and social hierarchies were organized.
Historians rely on ancient texts, inscriptions, and epics like the Mahabharata to understand these shifts. The texts provide insights into how society viewed family, caste, and class divisions during this period.
Kinship and Marriage: Many Rules and Varied Practices
2.1 Finding Out About Families
Families in early societies were diverse in structure. They consisted of members who shared resources, performed rituals, and had responsibilities towards each other.
Historians find information about elite families easier to gather, while understanding ordinary people’s lives can be more challenging.
2.2 The Ideal of Patriliny
Patriliny refers to the practice where inheritance and succession are traced through the male line, from father to son.
The Mahabharata exemplifies patriliny, as the central feud between the Pandavas and Kauravas over the kingdom illustrates the significance of sons in inheriting power and property.
In most elite families, sons would inherit their fathers’ wealth and position. However, in some cases, if there were no sons, succession could pass to brothers or even other relatives.
2.3 Rules of Marriage
Exogamy (marriage outside the family or kin group) was the preferred practice among high-status families. Marrying daughters outside the family was seen as a key duty for fathers.
Endogamy (marriage within the family or kin group) was less common, but some communities, especially in south India, followed this practice to keep wealth and power within the family.
2.4 The Gotra of Women
Gotra refers to a clan system used by Brahmanas, where families traced their lineage to a common ancestor, typically a sage.
Upon marriage, women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt their husband’s.
The Satavahana dynasty followed matronymic practices, where rulers were named after their mothers. This practice, however, coexisted with patriliny.
2.5 Were Mothers Important?
The importance of mothers can be seen in the Satavahana inscriptions, where kings identified themselves through their mothers’ names.
While this suggests a significant role for mothers, most of the evidence points to the fact that power and resources were generally controlled by men.
Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
3.1 The "Right" Occupation
The Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras laid down rules for each varna (social category). These texts stated that:
Brahmanas were to teach, perform rituals, and accept gifts.
Kshatriyas were to protect the people, engage in warfare, and administer justice.
Vaishyas were expected to be involved in trade, agriculture, and pastoralism.
Shudras were only assigned the role of serving the three higher varnas.
3.2 Non-Kshatriya Kings
While the texts emphasized that only Kshatriyas could be kings, historical evidence suggests that many ruling dynasties, like the Mauryas and the Shakas, did not belong to the Kshatriya varna.
These rulers claimed power based on military and political strength, not birthright.
3.3 Jatis and Social Mobility
Jati referred to smaller sub-castes within the varna system. People were often classified into jatis based on their occupations.
Some jatis, such as guilds of craftsmen, gained social mobility by acquiring wealth and influence.
Beyond the Four Varnas: Integration and Conflict
4.1 The "Untouchables"
Chandalas and other groups, considered "untouchables," were often pushed to the margins of society and were restricted from participating in mainstream social life.
The Manusmriti laid down harsh rules for chandalas, such as living outside the village and being restricted from social interactions.
4.2 Social Exclusion and Subordination
While the Brahmanical texts aimed to define social hierarchies, in practice, there was interaction between different social groups. The stories of Ekalavya and Hidimba in the Mahabharata show the complexities of caste and kinship beyond the Brahmanical framework.
Resources and Social Status
5.1 Gender and Access to Property
Draupadi’s story from the Mahabharata illustrates how women had limited access to wealth. Property typically passed from fathers to sons, and women could not inherit family property.
Women had some personal wealth known as stridhana (gifts received during marriage), but their access to larger property was restricted.
5.2 Varna and Access to Wealth
Wealth was concentrated among the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, but certain Shudras could also become wealthy through trade and other means, as shown in Buddhist texts.
5.3 Sharing Wealth
In Tamil Sangam literature, wealthy men were expected to share their wealth generously, especially with poets and bards, who praised their generosity in their compositions.
Alternative Understandings of Social Differences
6.1 The Buddhist Social Contract
Buddhism provided an alternative view of society, rejecting the fixed social hierarchy of Brahmanism. Instead, Buddhists suggested that social roles were created by human beings and could be changed.
In Buddhist texts, like the Sutta Pitaka, kingship is portrayed as arising from a social contract where rulers are chosen to maintain order in society, and the people pay taxes in return for protection.
Handling Texts: Historians and the Mahabharata
7.1 Language and Content
The Mahabharata contains both narrative (storytelling) and didactic (instructional) sections. The didactic parts were likely added later, as the story evolved over time.
The epic’s themes of kinship, caste, and class offer historians insights into the values and norms of early Indian society.
7.2 Author(s) and Dates
The Mahabharata was composed over centuries, beginning around 500 BCE and reaching its final form by 400 CE. It reflects various social changes, including the rise of kingdoms and shifts in religious beliefs.
7.3 A Dynamic Text
The Mahabharata continued to be retold and adapted in different regions and languages, reflecting local customs and traditions. This ongoing process shows the fluidity of social and cultural norms in Indian society.
