THEME SIX: Bhakti- Sufi Traditions
A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices
Variety of Gods and Goddesses: From the eighth to the eighteenth century, a wide range of gods and goddesses were worshipped across India. Major deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess were visualized in many forms, and religious beliefs were reflected in sculptures and texts.
"At one level, this indicates the continued and even extended worship of the major deities."
1.1 The Integration of Cults
Blending Beliefs: During this time, Brahmanical ideas (based on Vedic texts) were spread through simple Sanskrit verses, like the Puranas, which became more accessible to women and lower castes. In return, Brahmanical traditions also accepted and reworked local beliefs, leading to a blend of traditions.
"This is exemplified by the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse."Example of Puri: In Puri, Orissa, the local deity Jagannatha (a form of Vishnu) became a widely worshipped god, symbolizing the integration of local traditions with broader religious ideas.
1.2 Difference and Conflict
Diverse Practices: Some forms of worship, like Tantric rituals, allowed for greater social flexibility and were open to both men and women, ignoring caste distinctions. However, there were also tensions between different religious practices, like conflicts between Vedic traditions and other belief systems.
"Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent."
Poems of Prayer: Early Traditions of Bhakti
Bhakti Movement: The Bhakti tradition, which promoted devotion to a personal god, spread during this period. This movement included poet-saints who composed songs in regional languages. These saints came from all social backgrounds, challenging traditional norms, and worship focused on devotion rather than rituals.
"Bhakti traditions also accommodated and acknowledged women and the 'lower castes'."
2.1 The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu
Bhakti in Tamil Nadu: In southern India, the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) were early leaders of the Bhakti movement. They sang hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods and inspired the construction of large temples at sacred sites.
"Some of the earliest Bhakti movements were led by the Alvars and Nayanars."
2.2 Attitudes Towards Caste
Opposing the Caste System: Many Bhakti saints opposed the caste system, as people from different social groups joined the movement. Bhakti traditions encouraged equality, and the compositions of saints like the Alvars were considered as important as the Vedas.
"Bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered 'untouchable'."
2.3 Women Devotees
Influential Women Saints: Women also played an important role in the Bhakti movement. For example, Andal, a female Alvar, composed devotional songs in Tamil, expressing her deep love for Vishnu.
"Perhaps one of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of women."
The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka
Lingayats: In Karnataka, Basavanna led the Virashaiva or Lingayat movement in the twelfth century. The Lingayats worshipped Shiva and challenged the caste system. They also opposed practices like cremation, believing that devotees would be united with Shiva after death.
"The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the 'pollution' attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas."
Religious Ferment in North India
Bhakti in North India: In North India, the Bhakti tradition developed later than in the south, emerging more strongly around the fourteenth century. Religious leaders from different social backgrounds, like artisans and weavers, played a role in this movement, and many of them challenged orthodox Brahmanical beliefs.
"These included the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas."
New Strands in the Fabric: Islamic Traditions
Arrival of Islam: Islam spread in India through traders and rulers, starting from the seventh century. As Islam spread, many people in India adopted the religion, blending Islamic traditions with local customs.
"The developments that followed the coming of Islam were not confined to ruling elites; they permeated far and wide."
5.1 Faiths of Rulers and Subjects
Muslim Rulers and Hindu Subjects: Muslim rulers established the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire, but they ruled over a large population that was not Muslim. They followed a flexible policy, often showing respect to other religions and granting land to Hindu and Jain temples.
The Growth of Sufism
Sufi Mysticism: Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, emphasized love and devotion to God. Sufis rejected the materialism of the Caliphate and focused on living a simple, spiritual life. Sufi teachers, or shaikhs, established hospices where they trained disciples.
"Sufis sought an interpretation of the Qur’an on the basis of their personal experience."
6.1 Khanqahs and Silsilas
Sufi Orders: Sufi traditions were passed down through a chain of teachers and disciples called silsilas. The Chishti order was one of the most influential Sufi groups in India, and their khanqahs (hospices) became centers for spiritual learning.
The Chishtis in the Subcontinent
Chishti Sufis: The Chishti Sufis adapted to Indian culture and became widely popular. Their hospices were open to all, and people came seeking spiritual guidance. They also adopted local traditions, such as singing devotional music (qawwali) during their rituals.
"Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya’s hospice on the banks of the Yamuna was one of the most prominent centers of Chishti teaching."
7.2 Chishti Devotionalism: Ziyarat and Qawwali
Pilgrimage and Music: People from all religions visited Sufi shrines (dargahs) to seek blessings. Qawwali, a form of devotional music, was often sung at these shrines, creating a deep connection between the Sufi saints and their devotees.
"Qawwals sing songs that express love and devotion to God."
New Devotional Paths: Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India
Kabir: Kabir was a poet-saint who rejected both Hindu and Muslim rituals, advocating a path of devotion to a formless God. His teachings emphasized unity and equality, making him a key figure in the Bhakti movement.
"Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects."
8.2 Baba Guru Nanak
Founder of Sikhism: Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, promoted the worship of a formless God. He rejected both Hindu and Muslim rituals and established a community of followers known as Sikhs. His teachings were later compiled into the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.
"Baba Guru Nanak rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims."
