THEME NINE - Colonialism and the Countryside
Bengal and the Zamindars:
This section discusses how the British East India Company (EIC) introduced land reforms in Bengal and the effects on zamindars and peasants.
1.1 An Auction in Burdwan:
In 1797, the British auctioned lands of the Raja of Burdwan because he couldn’t pay taxes.
Many people who bought the land were secretly working for the Raja to help him keep control.
This shows how zamindars found ways to hold onto power despite British attempts to take over their land.
1.2 The Problem of Unpaid Revenue:
The Permanent Settlement (1793) fixed the amount of tax zamindars had to pay, but many couldn’t meet the high demands.
By the late 18th century, 75% of zamindaris (large estates) changed hands because of unpaid taxes.
Agriculture was struggling, with famines and low productivity making it harder for zamindars to collect rent from farmers (ryots).
1.3 Why Zamindars Defaulted on Payments:
The tax demand was set very high to ensure future profits for the British.
Bad harvests, low agricultural prices, and strict payment deadlines made it hard for zamindars to pay on time.
The Sunset Law meant zamindars had to pay their taxes by sunset on a set day, or their lands would be auctioned.
1.4 The Rise of the Jotedars:
Jotedars were rich peasants who gained power as zamindars struggled.
They controlled large areas of land and also acted as moneylenders and traders in villages.
Unlike zamindars, jotedars lived in the villages and had direct control over farmers. They even bought zamindar lands at auctions.
1.5 The Zamindars Resist:
Zamindars used tricks to avoid losing their estates, such as fictitious sales, where they had their own agents bid for their lands during auctions.
Even though they owed taxes, zamindars could often manipulate the system and keep their estates.
1.6 The Fifth Report:
The Fifth Report (1813) was a detailed document presented to the British Parliament about the condition of Bengal.
It criticized the mismanagement by the East India Company and highlighted how zamindars often kept their lands despite auctions.
The Hoe and the Plough:
This section looks at the conflicts between tribal groups like the Paharias and Santhals, and the British expansion of agriculture in eastern India.
2.1 In the Hills of Rajmahal:
The Paharias lived in the Rajmahal hills and practiced shifting agriculture, where they cleared forests, farmed the land, and then moved to new areas.
The Paharias depended on forest resources for survival, but British expansion of agriculture threatened their way of life.
As the British cleared forests for farming, the Paharias started raiding settled villages for food.
2.2 The Santhals: Pioneer Settlers:
The British brought the Santhals to the Rajmahal hills in the early 19th century to clear forests and farm the land.
The Santhals were seen as more willing to settle down and farm compared to the Paharias, who resisted British efforts.
By 1832, the British had created a special territory called Damin-i-Koh for the Santhals, where they were encouraged to farm.
The Santhal Revolt (1855-56) occurred when the Santhals rebelled against British taxes, exploitation by moneylenders, and the control of zamindars.
2.3 The Accounts of Buchanan:
Francis Buchanan, a British official, wrote detailed reports on the Paharias and Santhals.
He described how the British wanted to clear forests and turn tribal lands into farmland for better tax revenue.
Buchanan’s writings reflect the British view that tribal people should give up their traditional lifestyle and adopt settled farming.
A Revolt in the Countryside: The Bombay Deccan
This section explores peasant revolts in the Bombay Deccan, focusing on their struggles with moneylenders.
3.1 Account Books are Burnt:
The Deccan Riots began in 1875 when peasants in the village of Supa attacked moneylenders and burned their account books.
The revolt spread to 30 villages, where peasants destroyed debt records and looted the homes of moneylenders (sahukars).
Peasants were angry because they felt trapped in a cycle of debt due to high-interest loans from moneylenders.
3.2 A New Revenue System:
In the Deccan, the British introduced the Ryotwari Settlement, where taxes were collected directly from farmers (ryots) instead of zamindars.
Unlike Bengal’s Permanent Settlement, the Ryotwari system was not fixed and could be revised, which often increased the tax burden on farmers.
3.3 Revenue Demand and Peasant Debt:
The high taxes demanded by the British led to widespread peasant debt.
Farmers were often forced to borrow money from moneylenders to pay taxes and buy seeds or tools, but the high-interest rates made it impossible to repay loans.
During famines and crop failures, peasants had no way to repay their loans, and moneylenders would take their land as repayment.
3.4 Then Came the Cotton Boom:
During the American Civil War (1861-65), there was a huge demand for Indian cotton because cotton supplies from America were disrupted.
Peasants took loans to grow more cotton, and for a short period, cotton production in the Deccan increased dramatically.
However, when the American Civil War ended, cotton prices dropped, and peasants were left in heavy debt.
3.5 Credit Dries Up:
After the cotton boom, moneylenders stopped giving long-term loans, and credit became scarce.
At the same time, the British increased the taxes, making it impossible for farmers to pay without loans.
3.6 The Experience of Injustice:
Peasants were angry not only because they were in debt but also because they felt cheated by moneylenders who manipulated loan records and charged unfair interest rates.
In many cases, peasants had to give over their land and belongings to moneylenders, leaving them with nothing.
The British passed the Limitation Law in 1859 to limit how long a loan could be collected, but moneylenders found ways around it by renewing loan agreements every three years.
The Deccan Riots Commission:
The Deccan Riots Commission was set up by the British to investigate the causes of the 1875 peasant uprisings.
The report blamed moneylenders for exploiting peasants, but it avoided blaming British policies, even though high taxes were a major factor.
Official reports like the Deccan Riots Report provide important historical evidence, but they need to be read carefully, as they often reflect the British government’s perspective and try to justify their actions.
Conclusion:
British rule in the countryside deeply affected Indian farmers, zamindars, and tribal communities. The introduction of new land revenue systems, exploitation by moneylenders, and the expansion of agriculture into tribal lands caused widespread resentment and led to uprisings. Different groups responded in different ways: while some, like the zamindars, tried to manipulate the system to their advantage, others, like the Paharias and Santhals, resisted and rebelled against British control.
