THEME FOUR: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings
Introduction
The chapter takes us on a journey through nearly a thousand years, exploring the philosophical debates and religious beliefs of ancient India.
It highlights how thinkers tried to make sense of the world they lived in and how their ideas were recorded in texts, sculptures, and buildings.
While Buddhism is the primary focus, it is important to understand that it evolved through continuous interactions with other traditions like Jainism, Brahmanism, and regional beliefs.
Key sources for understanding this period include ancient texts like the Buddhist and Jaina texts, Vedic literature, and material remains like stupas, sculptures, and inscriptions.
A Glimpse of Sanchi
Sanchi and Its Importance
Sanchi, located in Madhya Pradesh, is one of the most well-preserved examples of Buddhist architecture. The most famous monument there is the Great Stupa.
In the 19th century, European scholars and explorers became very interested in the ancient monuments of India, particularly Buddhist stupas like the one at Sanchi.
Shahjehan Begum and her daughter Sultan Jehan Begum, rulers of Bhopal, played a crucial role in preserving Sanchi. They provided funds to protect and maintain the stupa, ensuring that it was not dismantled or looted by European explorers.
Preservation Efforts
The rulers of Bhopal funded the preservation of Sanchi. Their efforts ensured that the original structure remained intact, unlike other stupas, where relics and sculptures were often taken to museums abroad.
John Marshall, an archaeologist, dedicated his volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan Begum in recognition of her contributions to the site's preservation.
Architectural Significance
The Great Stupa at Sanchi stands as a significant reminder of India’s Buddhist past and is a testament to successful restoration and preservation efforts.
The Background: Sacrifices and Debates
2.1 The Sacrificial Tradition
Before Buddhism and Jainism emerged, early Vedic practices centered around sacrifices.
The Rigveda (composed between 1500-1000 BCE) contains hymns dedicated to gods like Agni (fire), Indra (warrior god), and Soma (a sacred plant).
Sacrifices were meant to please these gods to gain health, wealth, and prosperity. Early sacrifices were communal, but later they became more focused on individual households.
2.2 New Questions and Upanishads
By the mid-first millennium BCE, many people began questioning these sacrificial rituals. They wanted to understand the deeper meaning of life, death, and the universe.
Thinkers in this period, such as the authors of the Upanishads (philosophical texts from the 6th century BCE), moved away from rituals and focused on spiritual questions like the nature of reality, karma (actions), and rebirth.
2.3 Debates and Discussions
Philosophical discussions during this period were lively, and people were often engaged in public debates.
Teachers like Buddha and Mahavira (the founder of Jainism) questioned the authority of the Vedas (the oldest Hindu scriptures) and rejected the idea that one's social status determined their spiritual destiny.
These thinkers argued that liberation (freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth) could be achieved through personal effort, meditation, and ethical conduct rather than through rituals.
The Teachings of the Buddha
Buddha’s Life and Enlightenment
Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), the founder of Buddhism, was born a prince but left his luxurious life in search of the truth about suffering and existence.
After years of meditation and self-denial, he attained enlightenment and became known as the Buddha, meaning "The Enlightened One."
Buddhist Philosophy
Buddha's core teachings focus on:
Anicca (Impermanence): Everything in life is transient and subject to change.
Anatta (No-Self): There is no permanent self or soul.
Dukkha (Suffering): Suffering is inherent in life, but one can escape it by following the middle path between extreme asceticism and indulgence.
Nirvana, the ultimate goal in Buddhism, represents freedom from the cycle of rebirth and liberation from all worldly suffering.
Spread of Buddha’s Teachings
Buddha's teachings were simple and easy to understand. He spoke in Pali, a language common people could understand, rather than the scholarly Sanskrit, which was reserved for religious elites.
The stories in the Sutta Pitaka (Buddhist scriptures) emphasize his gentle approach, focusing on persuasion rather than supernatural displays.
Followers of the Buddha
Formation of Sangha
Sangha is the community of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis) that Buddha founded to spread his teachings.
The monks lived a simple life, surviving on alms and dedicating themselves to spreading the message of dhamma (righteousness).
Role of Women
Initially, the sangha was only open to men, but later, women were also admitted after Ananda, one of Buddha’s close disciples, convinced him. The first female monk (bhikkhuni) was Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami.
Women in the sangha also became teachers and contributed to the spread of Buddhism.
Social Equality in Buddhism
People from different backgrounds, including kings, merchants, and even slaves, became part of the Buddhist sangha.
The sangha functioned on principles of equality. Once someone joined the sangha, their social identity (caste, status) was no longer relevant. Everyone was seen as equal in their pursuit of enlightenment.
Stupas
5.1 Why Stupas Were Built
Stupas are mound-like structures that were built to house Buddha’s relics (such as his ashes) and serve as places of meditation.
These stupas became symbols of the Buddhist faith. The most important stupas, such as those in Sanchi and Bharhut, became pilgrimage sites for Buddhists.
5.2 Structure of Stupas
A typical stupa consists of:
Anda: A semi-circular mound of earth, representing the burial mound.
Harmika: A square platform on top of the anda, symbolizing the heavens or the realm of the gods.
Chhatri: An umbrella-like structure on top of the harmika, representing the Buddha’s high status.
Railing: A fence around the stupa that separates the sacred space from the outside world. Pilgrims walk around the stupa in a clockwise direction as part of their meditation and prayers.
Donations and Construction
The building of stupas was often funded by donations from kings, guilds, and common people. Inscriptions on stupa railings record the names of donors, including many women and monks.
Discovering Stupas
Amaravati and Sanchi
The fate of stupas varied greatly:
Amaravati: The stupa at Amaravati was discovered in ruins, and many of its sculptures were taken to British museums.
Sanchi: The stupa at Sanchi survived largely intact thanks to the preservation efforts of Indian rulers like Shahjehan Begum. The site was not only restored but also protected from looters and railway contractors who often destroyed ancient sites for building materials.
Conclusion
This chapter shows how the philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism, which emphasized ethical conduct, equality, and meditation, emerged in response to the ritualistic and hierarchical traditions of the Vedic period. The magnificent stupas and temples built during this time serve as lasting symbols of these profound ideas and their impact on Indian culture.
