THEME FIVE: Through the Eyes of Travellers
Introduction
Travellers came to India from various regions of the world for different reasons: as traders, merchants, soldiers, pilgrims, or diplomats.
Their accounts provide invaluable insights into Indian society, customs, languages, beliefs, and traditions.
The chapter focuses on the writings of Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier, whose accounts help us understand the diversity of Indian society.
Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind
1.1 From Khwarizm to the Punjab
Al-Biruni (973-1048 CE) hailed from Khwarizm (modern Uzbekistan) and was a polymath well-versed in multiple languages like Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit.
He came to India in 1017 as a hostage when Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invaded his homeland.
Al-Biruni gradually developed a deep interest in Indian society, culture, and religion, especially after learning Sanskrit.
1.2 The Kitab-ul-Hind
Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is an extensive study of Indian society, written in Arabic.
It is divided into 80 chapters, covering subjects like religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, manners, customs, and weights and measures.
He adopted a unique approach: posing a question, explaining it with reference to Indian (Sanskritic) traditions, and then offering a comparison with other cultures.
1.3 Understanding the Caste System
Al-Biruni was fascinated by the caste system and attempted to compare it with similar social structures in Persia and other regions.
He was critical of the idea of social pollution, a key element of the caste system, and found it contrary to natural law.
Despite his extensive study, Al-Biruni’s understanding of Indian society was largely influenced by Sanskrit texts, which reflected the Brahmanical view of society.
Ibn Battuta’s Rihla
2.1 An Early Globe-Trotter
Ibn Battuta (1304-1377 CE) was a Moroccan traveller who visited India in the 14th century. His travelogue, called the Rihla, is an essential source of information on the socio-cultural life of India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Ibn Battuta travelled through West Asia, North Africa, and parts of India before reaching Delhi, where he was appointed a qazi (judge) by the Sultan.
2.2 Ibn Battuta’s Observations on Indian Society
Ibn Battuta described Indian cities as bustling with life, trade, and activity.
He marveled at the postal system that enabled efficient communication across the empire, allowing news to reach the Sultan within days.
His descriptions of cities like Delhi and Daulatabad highlight the prosperity and complexity of urban life, with vibrant markets and a variety of goods, from textiles to luxury items.
2.3 The Coconut and the Paan
Ibn Battuta provided detailed descriptions of objects that were foreign to his readers, like the coconut and paan (betel leaf).
He described the coconut as resembling a human head, with eyes and a mouth, and noted its widespread use in Indian society.
His attention to these everyday items helped his readers back home imagine the exotic world of India.
François Bernier: A Doctor with a Difference
3.1 Comparing "East" and "West"
François Bernier (1625-1688) was a French physician, political philosopher, and traveller who spent over a decade in India, closely associated with the Mughal court.
Unlike Ibn Battuta and Al-Biruni, Bernier’s writings were focused on comparing India unfavorably with Europe.
He wrote about Mughal society, often describing it as inferior to Europe and critiquing India’s lack of private land ownership.
3.2 The Question of Land Ownership
Bernier was a strong proponent of private property, which he believed led to economic progress in Europe.
He criticized the Mughal system of crown ownership of land, arguing that it led to the exploitation of peasants and hindered agricultural development.
According to Bernier, the absence of private property led to poverty, lack of innovation, and widespread oppression of the peasantry.
3.3 Depicting Social Inequality
Bernier highlighted the stark divide between the wealthy Mughal aristocracy and the impoverished masses.
He described Indian society as consisting of a small elite class that dominated over a large population of impoverished peasants, with little to no middle class.
His critical view influenced later European thinkers like Montesquieu and Karl Marx, who used his descriptions to argue for theories of oriental despotism and the Asiatic mode of production.
Women, Slavery, and the Practice of Sati
4.1 Slavery in Indian Society
Both Ibn Battuta and Bernier wrote extensively about slavery in India.
Ibn Battuta noted the large number of female slaves employed in domestic work, as well as their roles as musicians, dancers, and even spies.
Female slaves were often used to carry men and women on palanquins (dolas) and played an essential role in Indian households.
4.2 The Practice of Sati
François Bernier was particularly shocked by the practice of sati, where widows would self-immolate on their husbands’ funeral pyres.
He described both voluntary and forced sati, with some widows embracing death willingly, while others were coerced into it.
His account of a young girl being forced into sati is one of the most vivid and emotional descriptions in his writings.
The Impact of Travellers’ Accounts on Indian History
The accounts of these travellers have provided valuable information about Indian society, culture, and politics.
Each traveller brought their own biases and worldviews, which shaped their observations, but their writings have become crucial historical sources.
Al-Biruni contributed a detailed analysis of Indian religion and philosophy, Ibn Battuta provided rich descriptions of urban life and trade, while Bernier critiqued India’s political and social structures from a European perspective.
Conclusion
These travellers offered unique perspectives on India, highlighting its diversity and complexity.
While their accounts were shaped by their personal experiences and cultural backgrounds, they remain invaluable for reconstructing India's past.
The divergent views of Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier offer rich material for historians to understand the dynamics of Indian society across several centuries.
