THEME EIGHT: Peasants, Zamindars, and the State || History Class 12th Chapter-8 NCERT CBSE || NOTES IN ENGLISH || 2024-25

THEME EIGHT: Peasants, Zamindars, and the State

Agriculture and Society: In the 16th and 17th centuries, about 85% of India’s population lived in villages. Peasants and the landed elites (zamindars) were the key players in agricultural production. This created relationships of cooperation, competition, and sometimes conflict among them.
"Both peasants and landed elites were involved in agricultural production and claimed rights to a share of the produce."
Mughal Control: The Mughal state, which relied heavily on taxes from agriculture, sent officials (revenue assessors, collectors, and record keepers) to ensure that cultivation happened, and taxes were paid.

Sources of Information: Most information about the agrarian history of this period comes from Mughal court documents, like the Ain-i Akbari, written by Akbar's historian Abu’l Fazl. These documents focus on the state's control over the peasants and their relationship with rural elites (zamindars).
"One of the most important chronicles was the Ain-i Akbari."
Other Sources: Additional sources include revenue records from different regions (like Gujarat and Maharashtra) and the records of the East India Company.

Types of Peasants: The Mughal sources often used terms like raiyat for peasants. There were two main types: khud-kashta (resident cultivators) and pahi-kashta (non-resident cultivators). The latter were often farmers who moved to other villages for better land or because of economic hardships.
"Seldom did the average peasant possess more than a pair of bullocks and two ploughs."
Land Ownership: Most peasants owned small plots of land. In Gujarat, peasants with about six acres were considered affluent, while in Bengal, owning five to ten acres made someone a wealthy farmer.

Dependence on Rain: Agriculture depended heavily on monsoons. However, in areas where additional water was needed, artificial irrigation systems like wells and canals were used. In northern India, the Mughal state also helped dig new canals and repair old ones.
"Artificial systems of irrigation had to be devised."
Farming Tools: Simple technologies like wooden ploughs with iron tips and oxen-pulled drills were used to plant seeds.

Seasonal Farming: Agriculture was organized around two main crop cycles: kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring). Most regions produced at least two crops a year, while others with enough water supply could produce three.
"Bengal produced 50 varieties of rice alone."
Cash Crops: In addition to staples like rice and wheat, the Mughal state encouraged farmers to grow jins-i kamil (high-value crops) like cotton and sugarcane, which brought more revenue. Other crops like tobacco, maize, and chillies were introduced later, adding to the variety of agricultural produce.

Structure of Villages: Villages were organized communities with a group of cultivators, a village headman (muqaddam), and a council of elders (panchayat). The panchayat made important decisions regarding village matters and ensured that the rules of the community were followed.
"There were three constituents of this community – the cultivators, the panchayat, and the village headman."
Caste and Inequality: Rural society was deeply influenced by caste. Many laborers belonged to lower castes and performed menial tasks. Despite the abundance of land, caste often restricted their economic opportunities.

Panchayat’s Role: The panchayat, led by the village headman, acted as a governing body, settling disputes and ensuring the fair treatment of villagers. It also managed village funds and oversaw community welfare projects like building irrigation canals.
"The panchayat represented various castes and communities in the village."
Enforcing Caste Boundaries: The panchayat ensured that caste boundaries were respected, especially during important events like marriages. They could also punish members of the community for breaking social rules.

Artisans in Villages: In addition to farming, many village residents were artisans who provided services like pottery, blacksmithing, and weaving. These artisans were often compensated with a share of the harvest or a plot of land.
"The distinction between artisans and peasants in village society was a fluid one."
Barter and Payments: Goods were often exchanged for services, and sometimes artisans received cash for their work. This exchange system was called the jajmani system.

Role in Farming: Women played an important role in agricultural production. They sowed seeds, weeded, and processed the crops after harvest. Women also contributed to artisanal work, such as spinning yarn and pottery.
"Women were considered an important resource in agrarian society."
Social Customs: Women's roles extended beyond labor, as they were seen as vital for bearing children. This led to social customs where women were closely monitored and controlled by male family members.

Forest Dwellers: Many areas of India were covered in forests, home to tribal communities. These forest-dwellers (called jangli) relied on hunting, gathering, and shifting cultivation for their livelihood.
"The term described those whose livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture."
Interaction with the State: The Mughal state saw forests as places of refuge for rebels but also valued them for resources like elephants. Forests were cleared to create agricultural settlements, often forcing forest communities to adapt to new ways of life.

Role of Zamindars: Zamindars were powerful landowners who collected revenue on behalf of the state and held significant social and economic power in rural society. They often owned large estates (milkiyat) and employed peasants to work their lands.
"The zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat, meaning property."
Power and Revenue: Zamindars controlled military resources and sometimes had fortresses. They could collect revenue and were compensated by the state for their services. They also established markets where peasants could sell their produce.

Mughal Tax Collection: The Mughal state depended on agricultural taxes to finance its empire. It employed a complex system to assess and collect land revenue, known as the jama (assessed amount) and hasil (collected amount).
"Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire."
Types of Land: Akbar’s administration classified land based on its fertility and production levels, with different tax rates for different types of land.

Integration of Rural Society: The relationships between peasants, zamindars, and the state were complex and interconnected. The Mughal state’s need for revenue shaped rural life, while the role of zamindars and village communities helped maintain local order and cooperation.