''India’s External Relations''
International Context Post-Independence:
When India became independent in 1947, the global scenario was complex. The world had just witnessed World War II, and nations were trying to recover. New international organizations were being formed (like the UN), and many colonies were gaining independence. The world was also entering the Cold War period, where global politics was divided between two superpowers—the United States and the Soviet Union. This context significantly shaped India's foreign policy.
Domestic Challenges: India had its own issues, such as poverty, Partition, and disputes inherited from British rule. These included border issues with neighboring countries like China and Pakistan. So, India's foreign policy had to focus on both international and domestic issues.
Non-Alignment Policy:
India did not join either of the two major Cold War alliances (the US-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact). Instead, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, India adopted the policy of Non-Alignment.
What is Non-Alignment? It means that India refused to align itself with any of the military blocs, wanting to remain independent in its foreign policy decisions. India believed in staying neutral in the Cold War and promoting peace and cooperation.
Global Leadership Role: India, along with countries like Egypt, Indonesia, and Yugoslavia, became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), which aimed to give newly independent countries a voice outside the influence of the superpowers.
Nehru’s Foreign Policy Goals:
Nehru had three main objectives for India’s foreign policy:
Sovereignty: Ensuring that India's independence and sovereignty were protected.
Territorial Integrity: Defending India's borders and territory from external threats.
Economic Development: Securing international support and resources for India’s economic growth.
Nehru’s Influence: As both Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Nehru played a crucial role in shaping India's external relations. His belief in peaceful coexistence (Panchsheel) and disarmament were key ideas in his policies. However, some groups within India, like the Bharatiya Jan Sangh, opposed Nehru’s neutral stance and wanted closer ties with the West.
India’s Distance from Cold War Camps:
Despite choosing the path of Non-Alignment, India had to navigate complex relations with the two superpowers.
Uneven Relations with US and USSR: India maintained friendly relations with both the United States and the Soviet Union, but this wasn't without challenges. For example, while the US provided some economic aid, they were not happy with India’s increasing ties with the Soviet Union.
1956 Crises: India condemned British and French intervention in the Suez Crisis but stayed neutral when the Soviet Union invaded Hungary. This kind of selective neutrality often drew criticism from the West.
Afro-Asian Unity and the Bandung Conference (1955):
India sought to build strong relationships with other newly independent countries, especially in Asia and Africa. Nehru strongly advocated for decolonization and supported anti-colonial movements.
Bandung Conference: In 1955, India participated in the Bandung Conference in Indonesia, which was a gathering of Asian and African nations. This conference marked the beginning of India’s leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and India strongly opposed racism and apartheid in South Africa.
Peace and Conflict with China:
Initially, India had a good relationship with China. India was one of the first countries to recognize the communist government of China after the 1949 revolution. Both countries signed the Panchsheel Agreement in 1954, which focused on peaceful coexistence.
Tibet and Border Issues: However, China’s control over Tibet caused tensions. India tried to support Tibet’s independence, but when the Dalai Lama fled to India in 1959, China accused India of encouraging anti-China activities.
1962 War: Border disputes between India and China escalated, particularly in the Aksai Chin area and Arunachal Pradesh. In 1962, China invaded India in a swift war, capturing parts of Indian territory. This war was a major blow to India, both militarily and politically, and it significantly damaged Nehru's image.
Wars and Relations with Pakistan:
India’s relations with Pakistan were strained right from Partition, primarily due to the Kashmir conflict.
Indus Waters Treaty (1960): Despite the conflict, India and Pakistan managed to cooperate on the issue of river waters, leading to the signing of the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960, which has continued to function despite tensions.
1965 War: Armed conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir escalated in 1965. Pakistan expected support from the local population in Kashmir but didn’t receive it. Indian forces counterattacked, pushing close to Lahore. The war ended with the Tashkent Agreement in 1966, brokered by the Soviet Union, but it added to India’s economic difficulties.
Bangladesh War (1971):
The most significant conflict between India and Pakistan came in 1971, when East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh) sought independence from Pakistan.
Humanitarian Crisis: Millions of refugees fled to India as the Pakistani army cracked down on the independence movement in East Pakistan. India provided support to the Bangladeshi independence movement, leading to war with Pakistan in December 1971.
Victory for India: Indian forces, supported by the local population, made rapid advances, leading to the surrender of the Pakistani army and the creation of the new nation of Bangladesh. The war ended with the Shimla Agreement in 1972, and India’s victory boosted national pride and Indira Gandhi's popularity.
India’s Nuclear Policy:
India’s approach to nuclear weapons was shaped by a desire to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Nehru advocated for disarmament, but the nuclear arms race, especially after China’s 1964 nuclear test, pressured India.
Nuclear Test (1974): In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, which it described as a “peaceful explosion.” India refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) because it viewed the treaty as discriminatory, favoring existing nuclear powers like the US and USSR.
Post-1971 Shifts in Foreign Policy:
After the 1971 Bangladesh War, India’s foreign policy saw some shifts, especially after the Janata Party government came to power in 1977. While Non-Alignment remained the official policy, relations with the US improved, and successive governments worked on better ties with both the US and China.
India’s Nuclear Expansion (1998):
In 1998, India conducted a series of nuclear tests, officially joining the ranks of nuclear-armed states. This led to international criticism and sanctions, but India justified its tests by pointing to the security needs of the region, especially with Pakistan.
Credible Minimum Deterrence: India adopted a policy of "credible minimum deterrence", meaning it would only use nuclear weapons for defense and not as a first strike, reiterating its commitment to global nuclear disarmament.
Conclusion:
India’s foreign policy has evolved significantly since independence. The foundation laid by Nehru, particularly through Non-Alignment and peaceful coexistence, shaped India’s stance during the Cold War. Over time, India had to respond to regional conflicts, growing global tensions, and its own security needs, leading to a more assertive stance on defense, especially after the 1971 Bangladesh war and the nuclear tests of 1998.
