Class 12 Sociology Chapter 3 Important Extra Questions Social Institutions: Continuity and Change

Class 12 Sociology Chapter 3 Important Extra Questions Social Institutions: Continuity and Change

SIQ 12TH
Published on By Amresh Academy


 

Question 1.

Give the meaning of Caste.
Answer:
The Hindu social system has one of the important complex and interesting institutions which is known as the caste system. Word ‘Caste’ has been taken from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means birth. A caste is an endogamous group whose membership is based on birth. Occupation in this is hereditary and traditional.

Question 2.
Give any three characteristics of Caste.
Answer:

  1. Membership of caste is based upon birth.
  2. A caste is an endogamous group.
  3. Castes were traditionally linked to occupations.

Question 3.
Give merits of Caste.
Answer:

  • Caste does the division of labor.
  • Caste maintains social unity.
  • Caste maintains the purity of blood.
  • Caste makes the rules of education.

Question 4.
How caste provides social security?
Answer:
Caste provides social security to its members. Members of every caste are always ready to help the members of their caste. There was no need for a person to be worried from any point of view because he was aware of the fact that his caste will definitely help him if any need arises.

Question 5.
Describe the functions of caste.
Answer:

  1. Caste determines the occupation of a person.
  2. Caste provides social security to a person.
  3. Caste gives mental security to a person.
  4. Caste maintains the purity of the blood.

Question 6.
Define Caste.
Answer:
According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the name hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

Question 7.
What are the causes of change in caste?
Or
Why is Caste changing?
Answer:

  • Because of socio-religious movements.
  • Efforts of Indian government and making of legislations.
  • Because of the changes made by the British.
  • Because of changes in caste due to industrialization.

Question 8.
Give Demerits of Caste System.
Answer:

  • The caste system causes discrimination, inequality, prejudice, etc.
  • The caste system breeds untouchability.
  • The caste system causes casteism.
  • The caste system leads to communal conflict.

Question 9.
Into how many parts ancient Indian society was divided?
Answer:
It was divided into the following four parts:

  1. Brahmins: They used to impart education to the upper three castes.
  2. Kshatriyas: They used to protect the country from any type of aggression.
  3. Vaishyas: They were either engaged in business or agriculture.
  4. Fourth varna: They used to serve the upper three castes.

Question 10.
What is the role of caste in spreading culture?
Answer:
Every caste has its own occupations, eating habits, living standards, etc. An individual observes all the customs and rituals associated with caste and also teaches them to his children. In this way, culture goes down from one generation to another and caste plays a very important role in it.

Question 11.
What are the changes coming in Caste System?
Answer:
Many changes came in the caste system due to western education, industrialization, urbanization, means of communication, etc. Almost all the restrictions of the caste system are coming improved to an end. Inter-caste marriages are increasing, the position of lower caste has been improved, steps have been taken against all types of discrimination, and problems regarding occupation is no more in the society.

Question 12.
What is a Tribe?
Or
Who are the Tribals? (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
A tribe is that group of people who lives away from our civilization on mountains, forests, and valleys traditionally. This group lives in a specific geographical area and have their own language, culture, and religion. These groups are endogamous groups and obey some rules from the point of view of love, occupation, and industry.

Question 13.
Give the definition of Tribe.
Answer:
According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, “A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.”

Question 14.
What do you mean by Inter-caste marriage?
Answer:
When any person marries a girl of other castes instead of his own caste then it is known as Inter-caste marriage. In ancient times, marriage out of the caste was not allowed. But there is no such restriction in modern times.

Question 15.
Give the meaning of Family.
Answer:
A family is a social institution in which a husband and wife are socially entitled to procreate and bring up their children. It is a social set up in which people with blood relation live together.

Question 16.
Define the Family.
Answer:
According to Nimkoff, “A family is more or less a durable association of husband and wife with or without children or of a man or woman alone with children.” According to Maclver, “The family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”

Question 17.
What are the characteristics or features of a Family?
Answer:

  1. There is no human society in which some form of a family does not appear. Therefore, it is universal.
  2. Family is based on human relationships, trust and other emotions, and sentimental values.
  3. The family has a central position in a social structure.
  4. Family is a bond of blood relations.
  5. Members of the family share responsibilities, duties, and obligations amongst themselves.
  6. Family is the basis of social control.

Question 18.
The universality of Family. Explain.
Or
Family is Universal. How?
Answer:
A family is a social group that is known as the first institution of human society. It is so because it has existed in every society and in every age in one or the other form. Every member of society is first a member of a family. Every person is related by psychological and emotional basis with the family in which he is born.

Question 19.
What is a Nuclear Family?
Or
Define Nuclear Family.
Answer:
According to Murdock, “The Nuclear family consists of types of a married man and woman with their offsprings, although in some cases one or more additional persons may reside with them.” In this way, a Nuclear family is a family in which the husband-wife and their unmarried children live. After marriage, children have their own different nuclear families. These are small in size.

Question 21.
Define Joint Family.
Answer:
According to Karve, “A Joint family is a group of persons who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked in one kitchen, who hold property in common, participate in common worship and are related to one another as some particular type kindred.”

Question 22.
Give the main functions of the Family.
Answer:

  1. It helps in perpetuating the race through procreation.
  2. It helps in socializing the children and make them a responsible citizen.
  3. It is the starting point of the division of labor.
  4. It is the primary economic unit where family members share all economic

Question 23.
What is Polygamy?
Answer:
The practice or the custom of having more than one wife at the same time. This type of Marriage is restricted by the law of Hindu Marriage Act of 1955.

Question 24.
What is Polyandry?
Answer:
In this type of marriage, one female can marry many males at a time. It means one wife can have more than one husband at a time. It is of two types, fraternal and non-fraternal polyandry.

Question 25.
What is a Patriarchal Family?
Answer:
In this type of family whole power or authority of the family is in the hands of the father. The Male is in charge of the family. Everyone obeys the orders given by the father and the father has full control over its members. This type of family exists these days.

Question 26.
What is Matriarchal Family?
Answer:
In this type of family whole power or authority of the family is in the hands of the mother. In this family, children are under the control of the mother. Here, a son has no right over the property but daughters have rights over the property. This type of family exists in many tribes.

Question 27.
What is a Patrilineal family?
Answer:
In Patrilineal society, the inheritance of property passes on from father to son.

Question 28.
What is a Matrilineal family?
Answer:
In Matrilineal societies, the inheritance of property passes on from mother to daughter.

Question 29.
What is Kinship?
Answer:
According to Charles Winick, “Kinship system may include socially recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties.” It means that the system of developed social relations made by-actual blood and made by marriage is known as Kinship.

Social Institutions Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is Hierarchy?
Answer:
There was a definite hierarchy in the caste system which means society was divided into different segments on the basis of their higher or lower status. Brahmins were given a higher status in all parts of India. Kshatriyas were in second place and the third place was of Vaishyas. Fourth and the last place in the society was given to the lower castes. The social status of any person in society was determined on the basis of this hierarchy. Brahmins were given the highest respect.

Question 2.
Explain the Segmental division of society.
Answer:
Indian society was divided into many segments within the caste system but broadly it was divided into four segments. Brahmins belonged to the first segment, then Kashatriyas, then Vaishyas and at the end, the Shudras or the lower castes were there. The status, place, and functions of the members of every segment were pre-determined. Every caste had its own rituals, customs, traditions, values, etc. That is why the scope of relations of members of every caste was generally limited to its own social division. Every caste was the social unit in itself to which a person belonged.

Question 3.
Restrictions regarding castes. Explain.
Or
What was the restriction related to caste?
Answer:
There were some rules in every caste regarding restrictions on certain points like:

  1. Every person had to adopt the occupation of his own caste.
  2. He had to obey the rules about food and food-sharing.
  3. He had to marry in his own caste.
  4. Lower castes were not allowed to get an education and to enter the temples.
  5. Lower castes were not allowed to touch the people of higher castes and to use the wells that belonged to the higher castes.

Question 4.
Restrictions on social relations. Explain.
Or
What were the restrictions regarding social relations?
Answer:
Society was divided into different castes in earlier times and was segregated into higher and lower castes. People of higher castes used to live inside the village and people of lower castes lived outside the village. They had to maintain distance from each other. Lower castes were not allowed to get an education with people of higher castes and were not allowed to enter the temples and to take water from the wells that belonged to the higher castes. Lower castes were not allowed to perform Upanayana Samskara.

Question 5.
What is meant by the term Untouchability?
Or
Caste gives rise to untouchability. How?
Or
How did the caste system give rise to untouchability?
Answer:
Caste System gave rise to untouchability. The so-called upper caste of the society considered the lower caste as inferior. They were kept away from society. They were not allowed to touch anyone. This restriction was known as untouchability. People of lower castes were supposed to live out of the village or the city. This created inequality in society.

Question 6.
Give differences between caste and class as a form of social stratification.
Answer:

ClassCaste
1. Social status of a person is made by the ability of an individual.1. There is no place of individual ability in caste. Social status is based upon birth
2. Membership of class is based upon money, status, etc.2. Membership of caste is based upon birth
3. No restrictions are there in class.3. There are many types of restrictions on the person regarding food, relations, marriage, etc.
4. Very little mutual distance is there in class.4. Different castes are very much distanced from each other, especially Brahmins and Shudras.
5. Class system is based upon the theory of Democracy.5. Caste system is completely against the system of Democracy.
6. People are, generally, conscious about their class and they want to rise and grow in order to change their social class.6. There is no consciousness in the caste system because no one can change his caste.

Question 8.
Describe different functions of the caste system.
Answer:

  1. Caste determines the occupation of a person as he gets it from the family.
  2. Caste provides social security to a person.
  3. Caste gives mental security to a person.
  4. Caste maintains the purity of blood.
  5. Caste provides political security.

Question 9.
What are the merits of the caste-system?
Answer:

  1. Determination of Occupation: The caste system has always determined the occupation of every caste. Occupation of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Lower Castes were fixed at the time of birth. It provided occupational security to everyone.
  2. Making a religious base: The caste system has always given a religious base to society. Religious duties of every caste were fixed and religious rituals were to be performed by different caste.
  3. To provide Social Stability: The caste system also provides social stability. Occupation, status, rules, etc. of every caste are generally fixed. A definite relationship was shared between all the castes with which stability came in the society.

Question 10.
What are the demerits of the caste system?
Answer:

  1. Division of Society: Caste System divided society into many parts. It led to hatred for other castes which led to enmity among different castes.
  2. The obstacle in individual development: The occupation of everyone is fixed in the caste system. One has to adopt occupation of his caste even if he has the ability to do better work. In this way, it is an obstacle in the way of an individual’s ability.
  3. The obstacle in Social development: Caste System is also an obstacle in the way of social development. Everyone thinks about his own caste, own people. People hardly care about the development of society.
  4. The obstacle in the way of Social reforms: Concepts of lower castes, untouchability, etc. came in front due to the caste system. It has kept lower castes at a lower place and hardly gave them the chance to come forward.

Question 11.
How has the caste system affected our society?
Answer:

  1. Caste System has affected social mobility. A person cannot leave his place due to his occupation.
  2. Caste System has created obstacles in the way of economic development of society and individuals because people of higher castes maintained a distance from lower castes.
  3. Individual abilities are always suppressed by a caste system.
  4. Enmity among different castes has increased due to the advent of casteism in politics.
  5. Many a time it becomes a major factor in creating communal violence.

Question 12.
How has industrialization affected the caste system?
Answer:

  1. In many large cities, people started to live with each other without any discrimination due to industrialization.
  2. The industrialization has brought wealth to the society with which the class system has replaced the caste system.
  3. The industrialization has encouraged international relations because of which people have left their ancestral places and started living in other countries.
  4. Untouchability was discouraged and even the lower section of society was given certain rights.
  5. People started getting educated and this changed they are approached completely.

Question 13.
Give four characteristics of a Family.
Answer:

  1. Universal Group: Family is a social and universal group. It is also known as the primary institution in human history because it exists in every society and at all times. Every member of society is definitely a member of a family.
  2. Small in Size: The size of the family is limited because only those persons are included in the family who either have taken birth in the family or who have marital relations.
  3. Central position in Social Structure: Our society is based on the family and different associations are formed only through the family. That is why it has a central position in society.

Question 14.
What are the main functions of a family?
Answer:
(a) Basic functions:

  1. Giving birth to children
  2. Protection of members
  3. Arrangement of food, house, and cloth
  4. Protection of children.

(b) Social Functions:

  1. Determines the status
  2. Socialization
  3. Social control
  4. Preserving social heritage.

(c) Economic Functions:

  1. Division of Labour
  2. Arrangement of income
  3. Protection of property.

(d) Giving religious education to its members.

(e) Political functions: Educating the members about their rights and duties.

Question 15.
Explain the types of the family on the basis of residence.
Answer:
Three types of families are there on the basis of residence:

  1. Patrilocal Family: In this type of family, the wife goes to her husband’s house to live after marriage.
  2. Matrilocal Family: When the husband, after marriage, goes to his wife’s house to live, then this type of family is known as the Matrilocal family.
  3. Neolocal Family: In Neolocal family, husband-wife make their own new house instead of going to their parents’ house.

Question 16.
How many types of kinship are there?
Answer:
Two types of kinship are there:

  1. Blood Relations: Relations based on blood are known as blood relatives like the relation of parents with their children. Relation of father, mother, brother, sister, etc. also comes in this category. These relations are based upon social sanctions and biological facts.
  2. Consanguine Relations: These types of relations are made on the basis of marriage. Not only husband-wife come in this category but relatives of bride and bridegroom also come in it. For example, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, etc.

Question 17.
What is the importance of the kinship system?
Answer:

  1. Kinship determines the authority in the family.
  2. The kinship system is very helpful at the time of marriage because it tells us which family one belongs to.
  3. Relatives are very much necessary for the completion of certain rituals of many religions of Indian society.
  4. The person needs his relatives at the time of pleasure and sorrow.

Question 18.
What is Tribal society?
Answer:
A tribe is a group of people who lives away from our civilization on mountains, forests, and valleys traditionally. The society which exists in these tribes is known as tribal society. A tribal society is a classless society in which there is no division of any type. Most of the population of tribal society lives either on mountains or in forests. These societies are generally self-dependent, who have control over themselves and they can independently survive on then own. They live in communities, quite segregated from society. Tribal society is completely different from rural and urban society from the point of view of social structure and culture.

Question 19.
Explain the role of the caste system in the modern age.
Answer:
Today, we can clearly say that the caste system has been weakened to a great extent. Now, it hardly matters as to which group a person belongs to. The structural aspect of the caste system has also been weakened. Caste discrimination, religious disabilities, restrictions on social intercourse are no more a part of society. Now caste has no direct relation with one’s occupation.

Jajmani’s system of villages is also weakening. The majority groups have dominance in villages instead of caste groups. Yet some impact of the caste system can be seen at the time of marriage but its rigid aspect is no more seen. It has been greatly influenced by a number of processes like industrialization, urbanization, Sanskritization, westernization, etc.

Question 20.
What do you know about the concept of Tribal Identity’?
Answer:
The meaning of Tribal Identity is to preserve the social and cultural heritage of tribes so that the existence of their culture should not come to an end after they come in contact with other cultures. These days tribes are feeling that they are being marginalized and that is why the concept of tribal identity came in front.

In tribal societies, people are converting their religion, forgetting about their culture, and want to become modern because of the impact of Christian missionaries and the spread of education. It is harming their basic culture. That is why the sense of tribal identity came forward so that their specific culture, religion, language, etc. could be preserved.

Question 21.
What do you know about categories of kinship?
Answer:
Three types of categories of Kinship are there on the basis of closeness and these are:
1. Primary Relatives: Primary relatives like husband, wife, father, son, daughter, brother, sister, etc. are included in this category. We have a direct relationship with them. These are of 8 types.

2. Secondary Relatives: Those relatives with whom we are connected with the medium of our primary relatives are our secondary relatives like the brother of father- uncle, sister of mother-aunt, father of father-grandfather, etc. These are of 53 types.

3. Tertiary Kins: Tertiary kins are those relatives which are primary relatives of our secondary relatives. For example, son of the brother of father cousin, wife of mother’s brother, aunt (Miami), etc. These are of 151 types.

Question 25.
In what ways can changes in social structure lead to changes in family structure? (C.B.S.E. 2010)
Answer:
It is true that changes in social structure lead to changes in family structure. For example, the Indian social structure was based on rural values. During colonial rule, industries established in India and rural society started to change into an industrial society. Rural people started working in industries.

That is why they started to migrate towards urban areas by leaving rural areas. In this way, the joint families existing in rural areas started disintegrating. People started to migrate toward urban areas and they took their wives and children with them. It led to the disintegration of joint families and to the advent of nuclear families.

Social Institutions Important Extra Questions Essay Answer Type

Question 1.
What is Caste System? Give its definitions.
Answer:
Meaning of caste system. The word ‘caste’ has come out of the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ meaning birth. It is also closely related to the Latin word ‘Castus’ which means Pure race. Actually, the caste system is based upon birth. The caste in which the person takes birth, he has to live with that caste for his entire life. With the birth of the child, his ways of living his life are determined. It keeps some restrictions on its members which are necessary to be obeyed by the person.

This caste system is one of the main bases of the Indian social system and all the aspects of Hindu social life are affected by this system. Its impact is so powerful that it has affected every group and community living in India.

Word ‘caste’ has been taken from the Sanskrit word ‘Jana’ which means birth. The caste system prevailed in other societies also but its developed form was seen in India.

Definitions of a caste system

To know the better meaning of caste it is necessary for us to look at the definitions of the caste system given by different sociologists and psychologists.

  1. According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”
  2. According to Robert Bierstadt, “When a class system is a closed group on one or more than one issue then it is
  3. According to Blunt, “A caste is an endogamous group or collection of endogamous groups, bearing a common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing on its member’s certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation or claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single homogeneous community.”

So, on the basis of the given definitions, we can say that caste is a group whose membership is based on birth. A person cannot leave his caste until he is not thrown out of his caste. A caste is a closed group. It means no one can marry out of his caste and there are certain rules and restrictions in it.

Question 2.
Give in brief the important characteristics of the caste system.
Answer:
1. Membership is based on birth: No one can determine his caste with his wish. Membership of caste is based on birth. Membership of a person was determined by his caste in which he took birth.

2. Restrictions on social relations: Society has been divided into different castes. One is from a higher caste and the other is from a lower caste. Sense of higher and lower exists in the caste system. People of higher castes lived in villages or cities and people of lower castes lived out of the city or village and they used to keep themselves away from higher castes.

3. Restrictions on eatables: There were some clear rules in the caste system which tell us that with which caste a person can keep his social relations and with whom he can share his food. Whole food was divided into two parts ‘Kachha Food’ and ‘Pakka Food’. Kachha food was made with water and Pakka food was made with oil.

The general rule was that a person can accept Kachha food only from the members of his own caste or from any Brahmin or from his Guru. That is why most of the castes accepted kaccha food given by brahmins but brahmins did not accept Kachha food from any other caste. Brahmins accepted Pakka food from specific castes only. Brahmins accepted Pakka food only from Kshatriya people and Vaishya people.

4. Restriction on occupation: According to the rules of the caste system, castes had their specific traditional occupation. A person had to adopt the occupation of his own caste even if the other occupations were more profitable. A man had no choice except to adopt his caste’s occupation. But some occupations were free to be adopted by anyone like trade, agriculture, the job in the military, etc. Even many castes were free to adopt any occupation but many castes had to practice their traditional functions like carpenter, blacksmith, barber, potter, etc.

5. Restrictions on marriage: The caste system was again divided and different castes were divided into sub-castes. These sub-castes restricted its members to marry out of its group. Endogamy is an important feature of the caste system. It means to marry in the group. Yet in some specific conditions, there were some restrictions. But, generally, they had to marry in their own caste. If anyone violated this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste and was restricted to enter any other caste.

6. Segmental division of society: Hindu society was divided into many parts by caste system and the status, place, and function of every part were determined by it. That is why members of a particular conscious of being the members of a group. Because of this segmental division of society, the area of interaction for a person is generally restricted to his own caste. Panchayats gave punishments to the person who violated the rules of caste. Different castes had different traditions and ways of living.

7. Endogamy: There were strict restrictions related to marriage. One was not allowed to marry out of his caste but he has to marry in his own sub-caste. If anyone violated this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste. Anulom marriage was also allowed to a certain extent. That is why boys of higher caste used to marry girls of a lower caste. Endogamy was the main basis of the caste system.

Question 3.
Explain the traditional theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
1. Traditional Theory. Traditional theory related to the origin of the caste system is written in Hindu religious texts. The most ancient explanation in Vedic literature about the caste system is based upon one mantra of ‘Purush Sakta’ of ‘Rigveda’. According to this mantra, all the four varnas had originated from the different parts of the body of Brahma. Brahmins were originated from the mouth of Brahma, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishyas from legs and Lower Castes had originated from the feet of Brahma.

In Manusmriti, Manu gave the functions of all four varnas. Brahmin will give education because he came from mouth, Kshatriya will use weapons and will protect the people because he came from arms. Vaishya will do the work of trade, agriculture, and rearing of animals. In the end, lower castes will serve the upper three Varnas.

In ‘Mahabharata’ it is also written that how different castes and sub-castes originated. In the Vedic age, there was no existence of Pratiloma marriage, only Anuloma marriages were there. Because Pratiloma marriage was not sanctioned by society. That is why the children produced by this marriage were not given any varna and they were differentiated from Hindu society. Later on, they became lower castes and sub-castes.

But the traditional theory has been criticized because the explanation of the varna System is there in this theory but there is no name of the caste system in it and caste and varna both are different from each other. Critics also disagree with the fact that all the castes and sub¬castes were originated due to the Anuloma and Pratiloma type of marriage. While criticizing Manu, many scholars say that the division of castes had not originated due to the varna system. If it could have happened then the number of sub-castes would have been lesser than that of main castes but it is actually opposite to it.

Question 4.
Explain the social theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Racial Theory. Many scholars have given the racial theory about the origin of the caste system. According to Risley, Maclver, Weber, Crober, etc. racial element is very important in the origin of the caste system. Ghurye, Dutt and Majumdar also supported it. According to Risley, three factors were responsible for the origin of the caste system-

  1. Racial exchange
  2. Interrelation due to exchange, and
  3. Sense of class difference.

The caste system in India was started after the arrival of the Indo-Aryan people. The society of this race was divided into four parts and they also applied this concept to India. Firstly, Aryans defeated the original inhabitants of India, and then they established one-sided marital relations with them because females among the Aryans were less in numbers. From here the custom of Anuloma marriage was started. Pratiloma marriage was not given sanction because Aryans refused to marry their daughters with Indian people. When the needs of Aryans fulfilled then they stopped the custom of Anuloma marriage. Racial mixture increased due to Anuloma marriage and different castes came into being.

According to Ghurye, Aryan people had given themselves higher status than the original inhabitants of India. They started the policy of living away from original inhabitants to maintain racial purity. They kept themselves in higher three varnas and had given the status of a slave to the original people of India. With the passage of time society was divided into groups of higher or lower status.

Majumdar was of the view that cultural conflict and racial exchange led to the origin of the groups of higher and lower status in India. Many reasons were there of racial mixtures, like less number of females in India, developed Dravidian culture, their matrilineal system, worship of gods and goddesses, wish to live life at one place, different customs, etc. After the conquest of the Aryan people over the Dravidian people, mutual exchange and cultural conflict were started among them. That is why many social groups came into being which became endogamous. From here the status of every group or caste was determined according to racial purity and on the basis of living away from other groups.

The racial theory has been criticized because it has explained the restrictions of marital relations but has not explained the rules of food and food sharing. Muslims and Christians are unable to take the form of a caste. Even they have cultural differences.

Question 5.
Explain the geographical and occupational theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Geographical Theory: Gilbert gave the geographical theory about the origin of the caste system. According to him, the caste system came into being due to the living of different groups in different parts of the country. This view is also expressed in Tamil Literature. This view can be explained on the basis of many examples. For example, brahmins living near the bank of Saraswati river were known as ‘Sarswati Brahmins’, and people living in Kannauj were known as Kannaujias. In this way, the names of many other castes were kept on the basis of their living place. But this theory has been criticized by most scholars because many castes exist in one geographical area and the names of all these castes are not related to that geographical area.

Occupational Theory: Nesfield and Dahlman gave the occupational theory about the origin of the caste system. According to Nesfield, different castes were originated on the basis of different occupations and he completely disagrees with racial factors. The racial mixture was at its advanced level even before the origin of the caste system. According to him, the caste system has not been originated due to religion because religion cannot give that fundamentalist base which is necessary for the caste system. In this way, according to Nesfield, the only occupation is responsible for the origin of the caste system.

According to Dahlman, earlier Indian Society was divided into three parts-Priests, King or Ruler, and Bourgouisee. Occupations of all three classes were related to religious, political, and economic activities. Then, with the passage of time, these groups were divided into smaller groups on the basis of occupation and relations. Earlier, they had taken the form of business enterprises and then were changed into business federals. Later on, these federals were developed into castes.

This theory has also been criticized: It is not correct to tell the direct relation between religion and caste. This theory is away from racial theory because there is some racial difference between higher and lower groups. With this, if the caste system was originated from business enterprises then why it originated only in India and not in any other country. This theory cannot provide answers to these questions.

Question 6.
Give in brief the evolutionary and religious theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Evolutionary Theory: This theory was given by Denzil Ibbetson. According to him, the caste system was not originated on the basis of four varnas but was originated by the organizations which were formed on an economic basis. According to him, earlier people were living like wanderers and there was no existence of a caste system. Blood relations were there among people and there was no feeling of higher or lower in them. But slowly and slowly and by living with each other economic development was started and people started to do agricultural work.

With the passage of time economic life became complex and a need was felt for the division of labor. It became the duty of the king to make such a policy that could be based on the division of labor and occupational differences. With this many new classes came into being. Community feeling was developed while living with each other. With time these groups had made their unions secure their interests. Every union had adopted the policy of endogamy to save its occupational secrets. In this way, due to endogamy, the caste system came into being. Slowly and slowly these groups had made their place in the social hierarchy.

This theory has also been criticized because unions on the basis of occupation are these in all societies. Then why the caste system was developed in India. The economic factors could be taken as one of the factors of origin but cannot be taken as the only factor.

Religious Theory: This theory was given by Hokart and Senart. According to Hobart, the origin of the caste system and division of Indian society took place due to religious customs and theories. In ancient Indian society, religion was very important and animals were also sacrificed to gods. In the custom of sacrifice, chanting of mantras and worship was also involved in which many persons were required. Slowly and slowly people, who were doing religious work started segregating. According to Hobart, the occupation of every caste goes on from generation to generation. The main base of occupation was not economic but was religious.

According to Senart, restrictions related to food came due to religious factors, and people were divided into castes and sub-castes. But some sociologists are of the view that the caste system is not a religious institution but is a social institution. That is why this theory is not correct. The caste system is very complex and the theories related to its origin are diverse.

Question 7.
Give in brief the Mana theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Mana Theory: Hutton was of the view that the elements of the caste system were there in India even before the arrival of the Aryans in India. When Aryans came to India then they had strengthened these elements to secure their interests. Social division in India was not much clear before them but the Aryans had differentiated it and kept themselves at the top of the system. According to Hutton, this was at an early stage.

In ancient times, Mana was considered the invisible divine force that exists in every person and can move from one person to another just by touching each other. Tribal people believed that the difference among humans was because of Mana power. People stay away from foreigners because they are afraid of Mana. They did not even touch those people, who they considered evil. In this way, tribes keep some restrictions on their members on some things which are known as Taboo.

According to Hutton, even Hindu, Muslim, Parsis, and Buddhist people also believed in Mana and Taboo. Discriminations related to Mana and Taboo were there even before the Aryans came to India. That is why restrictions among different groups related to marriage, food, occupation, etc. were there. When the caste system was started then it imposed many restrictions on its members.

This theory has also been criticized by scholars. They say that yet Mana and Taboo also exist in tribes of other countries of the world but we cannot find a caste system anywhere else. With this, the culture of tribes never represents the whole Indian culture.

Question 8.
What are the changes coming in the Caste System? Write in detail.
Answer:
1. End to discrimination and untouchability: In 1955, the Indian government passed the law ‘Untouchability Offence Act’ and tried to eradicate untouchability: Now if anyone says ‘Untouchable’ to any person of lower caste then he will be considered a criminal. The government has adopted the policy of reservation in government institutions to uplift the lower castes. On the basis of this policy, special provisions are given to lower caste people. In modern times, a person of every caste is doing every type of work. The government gives scholarships to the people of backward classes so that they should be able to get any status in society with some hard work. In this way, the discrimination on the basis of untouchability has been reduced to a great extent.

2. Change in the caste hierarchy: The hierarchy which was determined by the caste system in Indian society has been changed completely. Lower castes have been uplifted in society by a number of processes like urbanization, industrialization, Sanskritisation, etc. In modern times, no caste is considered inferior to the other castes. Even people of higher castes are ready to marry in the lower castes. In this way, social mobility came into being in Indian society and now we hardly find the hierarchy of castes anywhere.

3. Changes in the restrictions of food and drink: During ancient times, the feeding of the caste was determined by the caste system. Food was divided into two parts and feeding relations of a caste were pre-determined. But in modern times it was very difficult to adopt these restrictions. When people of different castes came in contact with each other in cities then these restrictions came to an end slowly. Cooks in hotels belong to different castes and people eat in hotels by sitting with each other and without asking each other’s caste. In cities, people work with each other and that is why they started eating with each other. In this way, a number of changes came in the feeding restrictions of a caste.

4. Decline in the status of Brahmins: Changes in the caste system were started even under the rule of the British. Firstly, the British government treated all the people of different castes equally. According to them, no one is brahmin or Kshatriya but all of them are Indians. They started to give western education to Indian people instead of religious education. Everyone was free to get an education in various educational institutions. In this way, there was no question of the superiority of brahmins because humans started to attain social status according to their ability and not on the basis of their caste. Lower castes raised their status by progressing economically.

5. Freedom in the selection of occupation. In ancient Indian society, the occupation of a person was determined to right after his birth and it was according to his caste. A person had to adopt the occupation of his caste, even against his wish. He was not allowed to adopt any other occupation except his pre-determined profession. But because of many reasons, society started giving importance to personal ability. Now humans are free to adopt the occupation of their choice. It means that person can choose the occupation according to his ability. Even the concept of profit has been linked with this. No occupation is higher or lower in his eyes. Now, he chooses the occupation in which he sees more profit. In this way, the freedom, which a person has got in a selection of occupation, has brought changes in the caste system.

6. Change in status of the woman. During the prevalence of the caste system, the woman was spending her life only by living in the four walls of the house. She was neither free to get an education nor she was free to speak on any subject. In this way, she had to spend her life in a suppressed way. But in modern times, she has got freedom in all sectors of life and she is now no more under the control of males. Now she is economically self-dependent. The status of females has been completely changed. People feel happy in the case of the birth of a baby girl. Now, there is no difference between a boy or girl child. Even the government has given reservations to females in different sectors. Now every female is free to marry anywhere she wishes.

Question 9.
What is a tribe? Give its definitions.
Answer:
A group of people who lives away from our civilization, on mountains, forests, valleys, etc. is known as Tribe. They have been given the name of Scheduled Tribes in the Indian Constitution. A tribal society is a classless society. There is no existence of any type of stratification in these societies. The tribe was considered a very important social group in ancient societies. Most of the population of tribal society lived either on mountains or in forests. They lived almost in every part of our country.

These societies are generally self-dependent which are controlled by themselves and are away from any type of control. Tribal societies are very much different from the structure and culture of rural and urban societies. We can divide them into three categories and these are:

  1. hunters, food gatherers, and fish catchers,
  2. people engaged in shifting agriculture, and
  3. people engaged in the permanent type of agriculture.

They are very much different from our culture, civilization, and society.

Definitions of a tribe
1. According to Imperial Gazetteer of India, “A Tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.”

2. According to D.N. Majumdar, “A tribe is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, members of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation and have developed a well-assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation.”

3. According to Gillin and Gillin, “Any collection of preliterate local groups which occupies a common general territory, speaks a common language and practices a common culture is a tribe.”

In this way on the basis of the given definitions, we can say that the tribes exist in a limited geographical area and live in the form of small groups. Different tribes are very much different and independent from each other on the basis of some of their aspects like social structure, language, culture, etc. Every tribe has its own language, culture, traditions, eating habits, etc. They have a sense of unity among themselves because they live with each other in a definite geographical area. It is the collection of groups of many families that were endogamous long ago. These days, these tribal people have been given protection by the Indian Constitution for their development in the form of many facilities like reservation and gradually, they are joining the mainstream.

Question 10.
Explain in brief the different characteristics of the tribe.
Answer:
A Tribe has many characteristics which are given below:-
1. Collection of families: A tribe is a group of many families that has common descent. They produce things to fulfill the needs of the tribe. They never accumulate things and do not have any property. These families have a sense of unity among themselves.

2. Common geographical territory: People of a tribe living in a common and definite geographical territory. They are very much different and live away from other parts of society due to this common and definite geographical territory. That is why they are out of the reach of the rest of society. Because they have their own different culture and they never like the interference of anyone in their tribe, they do not keep any type of relations with the rest of the society. They have their own world. They have the community feeling because they five in common territory.

3. Common Language and Common Name: Every tribe has its own different language because of which they are different from each other. A number of tribal languages, in our country, exist according to the number of tribes. Every tribe also has its different name and it is known by that name.

4. Segmentary Society: Every tribal society is different from other societies on many bases like eating habits, languages, geographical area, etc. They are different from each other on many bases and never like to interfere in each other’s matters. They do not discriminate against anyone and that is why they are known as a segmentary society.

5. Common Culture: Every tribe has its different ways of living, religion, language, taboos, etc. But these are the same in one tribe. In the same way, because of these differences, all the humans in one tribe has the same culture.

6. Economic Structure: Every tribe has its own land which practices shifting agriculture on it. They just want to fulfill their needs and that is why their production is also limited. They never accumulate things because of which they do not have any sense of property. That is why there is no class in tribal society. Every member of a tribe has equal rights on all the things and no one is inferior or superior in these societies.

7. Mutual Cooperation: Every member of a tribe gives full cooperation to other members of society so that all the needs of the tribes could be fulfilled. It is the duty of the headman of every tribe to keep the respect of its tribe. Every member of the tribe has to obey the orders of the headman and they give respect to their headman.

Question 11.
Explain in brief the political organization of North Eastern tribes.
Answer:
Political Organization of North Eastern Tribes. We can include the states of Tripura. Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, etc. in North-Eastern tribes. The main tribes of these states are Naga, Mizo, Apatani, Lushai, Jantiya, Garo, Khasi, etc.

Tribes of Assam have democratic political organizations. Most of these tribes have given sanction to the collective ownership of land and personal right over the land has also been given the sanction. People of one village are free to do agriculture anywhere. Yet, different families of the village have different economic conditions but no strict social stratification has ever emerged due to this.

Most of these tribes are divided into exogamous clans, the rest of the tribes live without the clan system in communities of villages. These different clans work under different chieftains. In the Khasi tribe, the post of chieftain after his death is given to the eldest son of his eldest sister. If no male is there then the eldest daughter of the eldest sister is given the post of the chieftain. Khasi tribe was divided into 25 Khasi states in ancient times which were independent of each other.

Administration in these tribes was democratic which had one of its head. Chieftain in Khasi tribe neither can impose any tax on the people, nor he can make any policy independently and he does not have any right related to forest or land. Decisions were taken according to public opinion. They call the council of all the adults of the tribe and people had to participate in it. Yet, the chieftain had all the rights in the Lushai tribe but even here it was not possible for him to go against the opinion of the people. The chieftain and his post both were ancestral but the administration was generally democratic.

Political administration in the Garo tribe is being run on democratic lines. There is no chief in the Garo tribe, just one headman is there who is the head of the tribe only by name. Most of these important decisions of the tribe are taken by the council or administration of the village which has the elders of the families as its members. A lot of diversity can be seen in the political administration of the Naga tribe. Some Naga tribes are being run on the autocratic will of the head but many Naga tribes have the democratic association of the village in which the headman has very few rights. Most of the Naga tribes are considered violent but these ideas are not correct.

Naga tribes can be seen on the battlefield but it should be seen from the social-historical point of view. Most people think that it is not possible to establish a consistent administration in this type of violent condition where every person has their own rule. But even in these conditions, one flexible political organization can be seen in these tribes. Headman in the Konyak tribe has many powers and rights.

Question 12.
Explain briefly the political organization of tribes of central India.
Answer:
Central Indian Tribes. Most of the tribes of India live in the areas of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Odisha. Some elements of political organizations in these tribes are generally the same on the basis of the unity of clans. One association of elders of the village is there for the help of the headman which takes care of the administration of the village. Most of the decisions in tribes are taken either with consensus or with public opinion and it is not possible for the head of the tribe to go against this decision.

The majority of the people of this area belong to Bhil, Gond, and Oraon tribes. Oraon people have formed one organization ‘PARHA’ which is the organization of many neighboring villages that has one central unit called ‘PARHA PANCH’. Every oration para has many villages. Out of these villages, one village is known as Raha (king), the second is known as Diwan, the third is known as Panri (clerk of the king,) and the fourth one is known as Kotwal village. Other villages do not have much authority and they are known as subjects of the king. King village is known as the head village of Partha. Every village has its own flag and badge which any other village cannot have. The main function of the paratha council is to solve the problems between different villages.

The lowest political authority among Santhal people is with the head of the village who is known as Manjhi. Manjhi and other elders of the village meet each other and discuss the matters of the society. The Head of the village gets some gifts at the time of his marriage. He also possesses some land without rent. Manjhi also has civil and moral authority. He is assisted by the deputy’s head for the day to day functions.

The Head of the village among Munda people is also known as ‘MUNDA’ but the religious head is known as ‘PAHAN’. 12 villages make one Patti or Parha whose head is known as ‘MANKT. Heads of villages form one group in which Manki is the most powerful. The basic political unit among the Gond people in the village. The Head of the village is known as either Patel or Manda. Some elders of the village help him in doing the functions of the village. These people exist in the Bastar district of Bihar. Yet the Hindu king of Baster does not have any domination over them but still, he is known as the spiritual head of all the Gond groups.

Question 13.
Discuss the political organization of South Indian tribes.
Answer:
South Indian Tribes. This tribal belt is the most technically and financially backward tribes. Most of the tribes of this village live in small groups. They are either dispersed in forests or are working for the farmers. Generally, these people live their fife according to their wish and they like to live away from interference and contact with any external group.

Tribes of the Andaman and Nicobar islands still are living in the hunting and food gathering stage of human development. Many of these tribes are wanderer groups but still, they wander in one definite geographical area. Even local groups have 5-10 families and every group has its own head. These local groups are living and working differently. They meet with each other temporarily at the time of hunting or at the time of any occasion.

Some other wanderer tribal groups do not have any post of the head. Heads of the family sit at one place if any problem arises and try to find the solution to that problem. There is no headman in Alios and Arandar people. When elders of the group meet each other then the discussion on any matter takes place and everyone has to accept their decision. Whoever does not like their decision, generally leaves the tribe. The group then becomes part of the other groups. The institution of Headman in the Kadar tribe has come to an end.

The post of the headman in the Adyar tribe of Kerala is ancestral. If the son is not good enough for the post then this post is given to the nephew. Headship is a special post but he is not an autocratic ruler. He only presides over the meetings of elders in which the community matters are generally discussed.

Question 14.
What is meant by Family? Explain its definitions.
Answer:
A family is an important group for social structure. The word family has been taken from the word ‘Fabulous’ which is a Roman word. A family is a social institution in which a husband and wife are socially entitled to procreate and bring up their children. It is a social set up in which people with blood relations live together. After the upbringing of the child, he becomes a citizen of society. In simple words, the meaning of family is the group of husband, wife and their children. But from a sociological point of view, its meaning is not only a collection of people but is by the system of their mutual relationship and its main objectives are to produce children, their upbringing, their socialization, etc.

Definitions
Different sociologists have given different views about the family and some of these definitions are given below-

  1.  According to Maclver, “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”
  2. According to G.P. Murdock, “The family is a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It included adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintained a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabitating adults.”
  3. According to H.M. Johnson, “Family is a group of two or more individuals related by blood, marriage or adoption and residing together, all such persons are considered as members of one family.”

Yet many differences are there in the definitions given by different sociologists but on one thing their views are the same that a family is a group in which a relationship of male and female are accepted by the society and it is a universal group. Its members are personally connected with each other in the process of reproduction. In short, we can say that mother, father and their children are included in the family and it is developed in every society.

Question 15.
Discuss in brief the important characteristics of the family.
Answer:
1. Family is a universal group: A family is a social group. It is also known as the first institution in human history because it exists in every society and at all times. Every member of society is definitely a member of a family. It is so because wherever we take birth, we are related to those members of the group.

2. Emotional base: Family is the base of the human society which is based on basic instincts of humans like to produce the children, relations of husband and wife, maintenance of descent, protection of property, etc., and emotions are also included in this. Feelings of cooperation, love, sympathy also are developed in this and this is necessary for the progress and development of society.

3. Formative Influence: A family is an important unit in a social structure. Family exerts a formative influence on the development of the personality of the child. Family is an institution in which a child gets knowledge about social behavior. All-around development of the man is possible only in the family. Whatever a child observes in the family tries to learn and imitate that thing.

4. Small in size: The size of the family is limited because only those persons are included in the family who either take birth in the family or who have marital relations. In ancient times when society was based on agriculture then joint families were there in which father-mother, grandfather-grandmother, uncle, aunt, etc. were living collectively. Today, nuclear families are coming up especially in big towns and cities where both the parents earn bread for the family. Nuclear or small families are found where only unmanned children live with their parents.

5. Central position in the social structure: Our society is based on the family and different associations are formed only from the family. That is why it has a central position in society. In earlier societies, social organization was based upon the family. Social progress was also based upon this. Most of the functions of the family have been taken by other institutions but still a number of functions are there which only family can do for the society.

6. Responsibility of the members: Every member of the society is connected with other members of the society and every member of the family takes each other’s responsibilities. Members do not have feelings of selfishness amongst themselves. In fact, whatever they do they do it for the family’s development. Even the sense of sacrifice develops only in the family. We cannot find personal relations in any other institution except family. If anyone becomes ill in the family then other members of the family take care of that person. It increases the feeling of cooperation among them. According to Maclver, “In difficult times, people work for the family, die while fighting but the family does all these things for the whole life.”

Question 16.
Explain different types of families on different bases.
Answer:
1. Types of the family on the basis of Marriage-It is of two types:
1.Monogamous Family-In this type of family, one male marries one female, and the family on this type of base is known as a Monogamous family. In the modern age, this type of family is known as the right type of family.

2. Polygamous Family-When one male marries more than one female or one female marries more than one male, then, this type of family is known as a polygamous family. It is further of two types:

  1. Polyandrous Family-When one female marries more than one male then it is known as polyandrous marriage. The main feature of this type of family is that one female has many husbands. It is again of two types. The first type is a Fraternal polyandrous family in which all the husbands are brothers. The second type is a non-fraternal polyandrous family in which the husbands are not connected.
  2. Polygamous Family-When a male marries more than one female then it is known as a polygamous family. In this type of family, one male has many wives. For example, Muslims are permitted to keep four wives. Hindu kings, in ancient times, had many wives. But according to the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, Hindus are not permitted to keep more than one wife. Many tribes in India are still there who have this type of family-like Nagas, Gonds, etc.

2. Family on the basis of Numbers-Family on the basis of numbers is of three
types:

  1. Nuclear Family-Nuclear family is a very small family in which the husband, wife, and their unmarried children live. Other relations are not included in the nuclear family. This type of family exists in modern societies because people are doing jobs in cities. Children make their own nuclear family after their marriage.
  2. Joint Family-There are many members in this type of family. Grandfather, grandmother, elder uncle-aunt, younger uncle-aunt, brothers, sisters are included in this type of family. Generally, this type of family exists in the villages.
  3. Extended Family-This type of family is generally made only after and with the help of a joint family. The advanced stage of joint family is known as extended family. In this all the brothers, their married children and even their grandchildren five together. This type of family is not possible in modern societies. This type of family was seen during the earlier time when the whole family was engaged in the same occupation but today it is hardly seen.

3. Family on the basis of Nomenclature-It is further of four types:

  1. Patrilineal Family-In Patrilineal family descent is of the father which generally exists in today’s life. It means that the son gets the nomenclature of the father and the nomenclature of the father is of great importance.
  2. Matrilineal Family-This type of family runs in the name of the mother. It means that the child gets the nomenclature of the mother. This type of family exists in many tribes of India.
  3. Bilinear Family-In this type of family descent of both mother and father goes side by side. It means that the child gets the nomenclature of both mother and father.
  4. Non-Unilinear Family-In this type of family, the nomenclature is determined on the basis of nearest relative. It is known as the non-unilinear family.

4. Family on the basis of types of relatives-This type of family is of two types:

  1. Consanguine Family-In this type of family, blood relations are at the highest place and there are no sexual relations in it. Husband and wife are also there in this type of family but they are not the base of this family. Membership of this type of family can be attained only on the basis of birth. This type of family never comes to an end even after divorce and they are permanent.
  2. Conjugal Family-Husband, wife, and their unmarried children are here in this type of family. In this, husband-wife and their relatives are included. This type of family can be broken after the death of either husband or wife or both.

5. Family on the basis of Residence-This type of family is of three types:

  1. Patrilocal Family-In this type of family, the bride leaves her father’s house and goes to the house of her husband to live and establish the family. We can see this type of family very often.
  2. Matrilocal Family-This type of family is definitely opposite to the Patrilocal family in which a girl never leaves her father’s house after marriage but it lives there only. In this, her husband leaves his father’s house and goes to the house of his wife to live. It is known as the Matrilocal family. We can find this type of family in Garo and Khasi tribes.
  3. Neolocal Family-This type of family is different from the other two types. Husband and wife are not living at their father’s house but they make a new house after their marriage and that is why it is known as the Neolocal family. We can find this type of family in the modern age.

6. Family on the basis of Authority-This type of family is of two types:

  1. Patriarchal Family-In this type of family whole power is in the hands of males. The Head of the family is male. Descent also depends upon the father. After marriage wife goes to the husband’s house and the property is distributed among the boys of the family. The eldest son of the family gets the most respect. His respect in the home is equal to the respect of the father. In every type of necessary family matters, male’s interference is necessary. It looks at the ancient Hindu society then, according to the Vedic books male was just like a God for the female. The eldest son gets all the rights of the family after the death of his father.
  2. Matriarchal Family-In this type of family, the female is dominant in the family, the whole ownership of the property of the family is in the hands of the female. Females of the family have the right over the property. After marriage husband goes to the house of the wife to live. The property was divided among the females of the family. The descent was also moved from females.

Question 17.
What are the Social Functions of the Family?
Answer:
1. Socialization: The child learns ways of living in society only in family and becomes a good citizen. With the help of the family, the child establishes social contacts. The child takes birth in the family and, firstly, he comes in contact with his parents because they fulfill his basic needs. The person gets ascribed status from the family. Qualities like cooperation, love, sacrifice, disciplines develop in a person only in the family. If the child gets proper education in the family then good citizens will come forward in society. He comes to know about every type of behavior only while living in the family.

2. Protection and transmission of culture: Family protects our culture and this culture is our social heritage. Every family understands the responsibilities of giving good habits and values to the next generation, traditions, customs, rituals to the person. The child learns everything with an unconscious mind because he automatically does that thing which he observes in the family. Every family has its own customs on which it is based. The family tells the child to learn everything consciously so that the child should move according to the traditions of the family. In this way on the basis of this continuity, the family protects and carries forward their culture and values to the next generation.

3. Social control: Family is an important agency of social control because it is the first agency in which the child is controlled so that the bad habits should not be formed in him. For example, parents control him not to tell a lie, not to misbehave with elders so that he should follow the rules of the family. Every person wants to do that type of work which helps in increasing the prestige of his family in the society. The family controls every type of behavior and actions of its members. In this way the child becomes disciplined. If the child does not behave in a proper way with members of the family then he will definitely misbehave with other members of the society. In this way, the family controls its members.

4. To provide status: In the family, a child comes to know about his status and role. In ancient societies, the child was respected according to the family in which he was born. For example, the child born in a rich family, King’s house, Landlord’s house get social status automatically. Yet, today, man gets status according to his ability but still, the child has to work according to the family in which he is born.

5. Provide occupation: In ancient societies, the child had to adopt the occupation of the family in which he was born. In the caste system, a child born in a Brahmin family adopts the occupation of the brahmins. According to ancient history, division of occupation was based on caste, and caste was related to the birth of the child. Today, a person can adopt the occupation according to his ability.

6. Help in marriage: This function was also done by the family in ancient societies. These days, man establishes marital relations according to his wish. But still, it is necessary that the family members should be present at the time of marriage. Even today it is the duty of the family to marry their children.

Question 18.
What are the changes that are coming in the institution of the family? Explain in detail.
Or
Explain the changes which are coming in the structure and functions of the family.
Answer:
1. Change in educational functions: With the change in society, changes are also coming in the functions of all the institutions. The functions of the family have been changed completely. In ancient times, a child was educated in the family, and education was generally related to the traditional occupation of the family. It was so because the joint family system was there and whatever professions the father was into, the child had to adopt the same occupation.

Under the guidance of the father-child got his training. But slowly and slowly, with modernization, children began to go to educational institutions to get an education and because of this, they started to move away from the traditional occupation of the family. He started adopting other occupations. In this way, the traditional function of the family changed and has gone into the hands of educational institutions and other changes that took place in society.

2. Change in the economic functions: During earlier times family was the center of economic activities. Every work-related to earning was done by the family. In this way, all the means of living were available to the family members. But with the advent of industrialization, all those functions of production were taken away by the big industries like, now cloth is made in textile mills. In this way, the economic functions of the family have been taken by industries. So the responsibility of the family of economic production has been taken away by other institutions.

3. Change in religious functions: During earlier times, one of the main functions of the family was to give religious education to its members. Elders of the family taught its members about religion and morality. But with the advent of new scientific inventions and discoveries, the outlook of the people changed from a religious to scientific point of view.

During earlier societies, religion was of utmost importance but today, religion is not given importance when it comes to societal issues. In earlier times people used to spend a lot of time in religious functions and religious rituals were performed for a number of days. Even now people believe in religion and customs but they can hardly spare time for them. They celebrate festivals and other important days together.

4. Change in social functions: Social functions of the family have been reduced. During earlier times, the husband was just like a God for his wife. It was the duty of the husband to keep his wife happy. The function of the family was the upbringing of children. But now, due to more number of nuclear families in cities and towns, only parents bring up their children.

5. Decreasing family unity. In earlier times joint families were there but today, unity and the system of joint family has come to an end. Everyone has their own ideals. No one tolerates anyone’s interference. They are living with each other, eating, drinking with each other but hardly bother about them. Clearly, they lack unity.

Question 19.
What is Joint Family? Give its definitions.
Answer:
The main feature of ancient Indian society was the joint family system. The meaning of joint family is that husband, wife, children, grandparents all should live in one house. In these families property is common and every member of the family has shared in it. The system of the Indian family is just like the socialist community. The joint family system is based upon the authority of the father. Different scholars have different views about the meaning of joint family and these are given below:
1. According to Karve, “A joint family is a group of persons who generally live under one roof, who eat and cook at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.”

2. According to I.P. Desai, “We call that household a joint family which has greater generation depth than the nuclear family and the members of which are related to one another by property, income and mutual rights and obligations.”

3. According to Kingsley Davis, “The joint family consists of males having common male ancestor, females offspring not yet married and women brought into the group by marriage. All of these persons might live in a common household or in several households near to one another. In any case, so long as the joint family holds together, its members are expected to contribute to the support of the whole and to receive from it a share of the total product.”

From these definitions, it is clear that a joint family is a cooperative system of close relations based on the common organization in which a mixture of common property and common rights is there. In this family, all the persons of common ancestors are included. In these families, members of a minimum of three generations are living. Cultural continuity exists in them and every person obeys his duty properly.

Question 20.
Discuss in brief the major characteristics of a joint family.
Answer:

  1. Large in Size-In joint family, members of many generations five who are related with the descent of the father. That is why it is large in size.
  2. Feeling of Cooperation-In this system of family, all the members of the family help each other. They all cooperate and work together. In fact, they work for a common cause.
  3. Common Property-Ownership of the property is equal for all the members and the head of the family takes care of it.
  4. Common Residence-All the members of the joint family live under one roof. Their kitchen is also one where they take food jointly by sitting with each other.
  5. A Productive Unit-In this type of family, all the members of the family jointly work together and whatever they earn, share with each other.
  6. Common Religion-All the members of the joint family believe in one religion. They take part in all the religious activities of the family jointly.
  7. Common Kitchen-In joint family all the members use one kitchen. That’s why they celebrate all the religious activities jointly. Common kitchen enhances love in them.
  8. Stability-Joint family is more stable as compared to other types of family. Members of joint family are more in number and that is why earners are more in number. So because of this, all the needs of the members of the family are generally fulfilled. If anyone is sick in the family and is unable to do work even then they can five properly. That is why more stability is there in this type of family and culture is transmitted from one generation to another.
  9. Rights-In a joint family, the head of the family has a complete right over the members of the family. Head is of great importance in the family and all the other members of the family respect him. Every member has to obey his orders. The eldest member of the family is the head and he takes responsibility for the functions of the family. It helps in maintaining discipline in the family.

Question 21.
What are the merits of a Joint Family?
Answer:
1. Cooperation-Relations between the members of the joint family are of cooperation and mutual understanding. Every member takes care of each other’s needs. They lack a sense of selfishness. In fact, they have a sense of sacrifice. One member is ready to do anything for another.

2. Preservation of Culture-In joint family, members of many generations live with each other. That is why every person has to obey the rules made by the family. These rules and ideas are taken forward from one generation to another.

3. Social Control-In joint family all the members of the family are controlled by the head of the family. Every person has to obey the orders given by elders. That is why a child learns to respect others in the family. Children never try to do anything without the advice of elders.

4. Religious Functions-Common religion is there in the joint family. They celebrate all the religious activities jointly with each other. All the religious and customary functions are done by them jointly.

5. Recreation-Joint family is big in size. That is why they enjoy the company of each other. In the evening they sit with each other, have dinner together, which helps in the recreation.

6. Economic Advantage-All the members of the joint family work jointly and there is no division of land or labor among them. Males work outside and females work at home. All the functions of the family have been done by the members of the family.

7. Security of Members-All the members in a joint family work together. That is why if any member falls sick then other members take care of him. At the death of any member, they take joint responsibility for his wife and children. They help each other economically. In this way, there is no tension of unemployment or any physical ailment in the joint family. They help each other with every type of problem.

Question 22.
What are the demerits of the joint family?
Answer:
1. Lack of personality and Non-development of individual-Person cannot develop his personality while living in a joint family. The main reason behind this is that he cannot test his abilities. He cannot do anything according to his wish. In fact, he works according to the wish of others. Every member in a joint family has a say in each other life and so, an individual’s own choice is not given credit in joint families. In this way, he never gets a chance to develop his personality.

2. Lower Status of Women-Joint families are generally patriarchal families in which males are dominant. Females are just restricted to produce children or to take care of the kitchen. It is so because she is economically dependent upon others. In this way status of women is low.

3. Carelessness-In joint family everyone knows that whether they will work or not, they will get bread. In this condition, some members a lot and some sit idle. In this condition, some take responsibility for the whole family and others waste their time by not doing anything.

4. Conflicting Situation-In joint family conflicts and quarrels generally takes place. With this, the peace of the family comes to an end. Sometimes members of the family hardly speak to each other. In this condition sometimes joint family comes to an end.

Hence, we can say that in a joint family common property is there but no one takes its responsibilities, and in the situation of conflict sometimes property is also destroyed. Some other problems are also emerging because of joint family. That is why joint family is losing its importance. Social mobility has come because of industrialization, urbanization, and means of transport, etc.

Question 23.
Why are joint families disintegrating?
Answer:
1. Importance of Money-In modern society, man has changed his lifestyle by getting an education because of which he needs a lot of money. So, he started earning a lot of money by using his capabilities so that he could be able to raise his status and living standard. This thinking has encouraged him to separate from joint family.

2. Impact of Westernisation-British empire had brought a lot of changes in India. They promoted the Western culture. Western education helped the people to form independent views. That is why people started to live separately. Individualistic interests also developed.

3. Industrialisation-Modern society is also known as an industrial society. Industries came into being. Production of houses was gone to industries. Machines can do a lot of work with less expenditure. Artisans started to move towards industries. In this way, they started to separate from their roots. Now, there was no need to adapt to their traditional occupation. That’s why people started to move towards cities for jobs and joint families started to disintegrate.

4. Social mobility-In modern societies, man can achieve status according to his capabilities. That is why he has to do a lot of hard work. Every person wants to rise upwards in society. In joint family status of the person is ascribed and that is why there is no need to work hard. There is a lot of social mobility in society and thus, the joint families started to disintegrate. Now everyone thinks about his own family. The sense of individualism has been developed. He wants to make his personality himself. In this way, social mobility has encouraged the disintegration of joint family.

5. Development in the means of transportation-Means of transport has been developed. In earlier times man was unable to move from one place to another due to lack of means of transport and communication. That is why they lived a confined life. But with the development of means of transport, this problem was solved. Now they can live in different places and even then they can contact each other very easily. That is why the joint family started disintegrating.

6. Some other reasons-Another reason for the disintegration of the joint family was the conflicts and quarrels of the family because of which there had always been a tense atmosphere in the society. Because of which people started to leave the families. Many functions of the family have been taken by other institutions like stitching was done in the family but now tailor stitches the clothes. Children are going to creches if a mother is going out for a job. The government has also passed some laws with which females get complete independence in society. Now, the husband cannot treat his wife violently. She can five separately by getting a divorce. Both males and females have equal rights over the property. A girl has the same rights over the property of the father as the boy.

Question 24.
What is meant by Nuclear Family? Explain it with characteristics.
Answer:
Nuclear families are of great importance in modern societies. The nuclear family is a very limited group, on the basis of numbers, in which husband, wife, and their unmarried children live together. Nuclear families came into being after social changes. They are also known as basic families. Many sociologists have given their views about them which are given below:

According to G.P. Murdock, “The nuclear family consists typically of a married man and woman with their offsprings, although in individual cases one or more additional persons may reside with them.”

According to I.P. Desai, “Nuclear family is a family in which the members are not related to their kin through or by property or income or the right and obligations pertaining to them, as are expected and related by kinship.”

According to Haris, “Nuclear family is a small group of those people who except fulfilling the biological role fulfills the institutional responsibilities towards each other which are expected from them to do in the family.”

So on the basis of these definitions, we can say that husband, wife, and their unmarried children are there in a nuclear family. When children get married then they also start living in their separate families. These families are connected on the basis of marriage. They are small in size. In this type of family, only eight types of relations are included.

Characteristics of a nuclear family
1. Limited Size-Nuclear families are formed on the basis of the number of members. That is why the size of a nuclear family is small. In this husband, wife, and their unmarried children are included.

2. Limited relations-In nuclear families, 8 types of relations are included like: Husband-wife, Mother-son, Father-son, Mother-daughter, Father-daughter, sister- sister, sister-brother, brother-brother. In these types of families, blood relations are important. They have formal relations with other members of the family.

3. Common authority-Every member of the family has equal authority. Everyone shares advice and views in the family to solve the problems of the family. In this way, father alone does not have all the responsibilities. In this more importance is given to individual capabilities. Responsibilities and duties are shared among all the members.

4. Importance of all members of the family-In a nuclear family, only two generations live together. In this type of family, everyone has got an equal status. Labour is equally divided among the members of the family. Children have more importance in nuclear families. Parents wish to give good education to their children and they take care of every type of need of their children.

5. Independent Social Unit-The mam characteristic of a nuclear family is its independent nature. It means that the members of the family are dependent upon other members for their needs but they are not dependent upon other relatives. In this way, these families are of independent nature.

Question 25.
What is Kinship? Give its definitions.
Answer:
‘Kin’ is an English word that has been taken from the word ‘Cynn’ which means relative. Sociologists and anthropologists have kept the word ‘relatives’ while studying kinship. In the word kinship, all the relatives are included like blood relatives, relatives made by marriage, etc.

In simple words, according to Sociology and Anthropology, Kinship System is a collection of rules which regulates the nomenclature, heiress, heritage, marriage, extramarital relations, place of living, etc. and determines the status of a person in any specific society or in-group from the point of view of blood relation and relatives.

It means that the system of social relations developed and made by blood relations or affinal relations. Its clear meaning is that all those relations which have been made by blood or by marriage are part of the Kinship system. For example, mother-father, uncle-aunt, maternal uncle-aunt, brother-sister, father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, etc. All these are relatives and are part of Kinship.

For the broader meaning of Kinship, it is necessary for us to see the definition of Kinship given by different scholars.

Definitions

  1. According to Levi Strauss, “Kinship is an arbitrary system of the idea.”
  2. According to Charles Winick, “Kinship system may include socially recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties.”
  3. According to Redcliffe Brown, “All those relations which came as a result or made because of family and marriage are the part of Kinship System.”

On the basis of the given definitions, we can say that two persons are relatives. If their ancestor is one, then, they are the offsprings of one person. The kinship system is the system of relatives that is based on blood relations or affinal relations. The kinship system is cultural and its structure is different in the whole world. It is a system of specific relation groups in which all the relatives are included which understand the responsibilities towards each other. In this way system of social relations established by socially sanctioned real or made up blood and affinal relatives is known as the Kinship system.

Question 26.
Explain in brief the significance of the kinship system.
Answer:
1. With the help of the Kinship system, rights, marriage, family, production, and method of consumption, rights of political power are determined in tribal and agricultural societies. Even in urban societies, we can see the importance of Kinship relations at the time of marriage and family festivals.

2. Kinship, family, and marriage are very deeply related to each other. With the help of the Kinship system, we can determine who marries whom and which name would be given to which relation. From Kinship only we can come to know about the nomenclature, clan, and the family of the person.

3. Family life, relations of family, nomenclature, clan, and rituals related to birth and death are determined by the Kinship, and who will perform all the rituals is also determined by Kinship. For example, in the rituals related to marriage big brother, mother, and sister of the father are of great importance. Who will be the heir of the person is also determined by the Kinship. At the time of social functions, festivals, relatives are of great importance because at these the relationships are strengthened.

4. Kinship system gives strength to society. The kinship system plays an important role in making social organization. If the Kinship system would not be there then the social system will break down and there will be chaos in the society.

5. Kinship system determines sexual relations. Sexual relations in the Kinship system are restricted in our society. If the Kinship system would not be there then there will be a lot of illegal relations and children in the society and social disorders will prevail in society.

6. Kinship System plays an important role in the determination of marriage. You are not supposed to marry in your clan, how many relatives would be left from the mother’s side and the father’s side all depend upon the Kinship system. If this system would not be there then no one will obey the rules related to marriage.

7. Kinship system gives mental peace to an individual. Yet in modern industrial society, our views have been changed from emotional to practical but still, man is tied with the Kinship ties. Humans are based on the group and Kinship. Without Kinship, man is just like a dead man. Our relatives know us very well. They accept themselves as part of the family. If we are in any trouble, then our relatives would help us. Only by living with our relatives we become happy and feel pleasure in their company.

In this way, we can say that Kinship is of great importance in our society. Nothing will be left in our society if we take out the Kinship system from it.

Question 27.
Explain briefly the different categories of the kinship system.
Answer:
On the basis of closeness and distance from the person, Kinship has been divided into different categories. In Kinship, we do not have the same type of relations with all the relatives. The type of relations which we have with our parents, husband-wife, and children, we cannot have that type of relations with our uncle, aunt, nephew, etc. We do not have very close relations with them. On the basis of this closeness and distance, Kinship has been divided into three categories which are given below:

1. Primary Relatives: In the first category of Kinship primary relatives like husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, mother-daughter, father-daughter, sister-sister, brother-sister, brother-brother are included. According to Murdock, they are of 8 types. They are primary because relations among them are direct and very close.

2. Secondary Relatives: Some of our relatives are primary like mother-father, brother-sister, etc., and have direct relations with them. But some relatives are there who are not directly related to us. In fact, we are connected with them with the medium of our primary relatives like a brother, of the mother, brother or father, sister or mother, sister of father, husband of sister, wife or brother, etc. We do not have a very close relationship with them. They are our secondary relatives. According to Murdock, these are of 33 types.

3. Tertiary Kins: First relatives are primary. Then, comes the secondary relatives which are related to us through primary relatives. The third types are those relatives which are primary relatives of secondary relatives. Like a son of the brother of father, wife or mother’s brother, wife of the brother of father, .etc. According to Murdock, these are of 151 types.

So in this way, there are three types of categories of Kinship.

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