Purpose of traveling by different people :-
Women and men made this journey in search of employment.
People traveled for protection from natural calamities like flood, drought, earthquake etc.
People traveled in the form of merchants, soldiers, priests and pilgrims.
Traveled inspired by the spirit of adventure.
Problems of traveling in ancient times:-
- long time
- lack of facilities
- fear of pirates
- natural disasters
- diseases
- fear of getting lost
Main Travelers to visit India :-
- Al-Biruni
- ibn battuta
- François Bernier
Some other travelers who visited India :-
Marcopolo :- The description of Marcopolo, a traveler who came from Venice in the 13th century, throws light on the social and economic condition of South India.
Nikitin: From Russia (15th century)
Sayid Ali Reis :- Turkey (16th century)
Father Masaret :- Spain (went to Akbar's court)
Peter Mundy :- England (17th century)
Abdur Razzaq:- Abdur Razzaq Samarkandi traveled to South India in the 1440s. He described India as a strange country on the basis of seeing Calicut port and praised a temple built in Mangalore. Vijayanagara is also described.
Sheikh Ali Hajin :- (1740s) Very disappointed with India. And called India a disgusting country.
Mahmud Wali Valkhi: - (17th century) was so impressed with India that he became a monk for some time.
Duarte Barbosa: - Traveled from Portugal to South India in 1518 AD.
Waptist Tavenier: - French jeweler of the 17th century who visited India at least 6 times.
Life of Al-Biruni:-
Alberuni was born in 973 AD in Khwarism (modern Uzbekistan).
Khwarism was an important center of education and Alberuni had received the best of the best education available at that time.
He was proficient in several languages, including Syrian, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit . Although he did not know the Greek language, he was well acquainted with the works of Plato and other Greek philosophers which he had read through Arabic translations.
How did al-Biruni come to India?
After the invasion of Khwarism in 1017 AD, Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi took many scholars and poets from here with him to his capital Ghazni. In which Alberuni was also one.
Alberuni came to the Ghaznavi Empire as a hostage from Uzbekistan. The Punjab province of North India had also become a part of that empire.
Gradually, he started liking this city and spent the rest of his life till his death at the age of 70, it was in Ghazni that Alberuni developed interest in India.
Before 1500 AD, only a few people would have read Alberuni, while many people outside India had done so.
Having acquired proficiency in several languages, Alberuni was able to compare languages and translate texts.
He translated many cultures in which Patanjali's grammar book was also in Arabic. He translated the works of Euclid (a Greek mathematician) into Sanskrit for his Brahmin friends.
Al-Biruni's Journey :-
Although his itinerary is unclear, he appears to have traveled to Punjab and many parts of northern India. Al-Biruni spent many years with Brahmin priests and scholars and acquired knowledge of Sanskrit, religion and philosophy.
At the time of his writing, travelogues had become a recognized part of Arabic literature. These accounts pertained to regions extending from the Sahara Desert in the west to the Volga River in the north.
Kitab (Ul-Hind)
A book written in Arabic by Alberuni. Its language is simple and clear.
This is a comprehensive book. Which is divided into 80 chapters on the basis of subjects like religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, customs and practices, social life, weight and measurement methods, sculpture, law, metrology etc.
Generally, many historians believe that the main reason for the clarity of the geometric structure of Alberuni was the inclination towards mathematics.
Obstacles in understanding India (Al-Biruni)
Alberuni was aware of the problems inherent in the objective you had set. He has discussed many obstacles. Which according to him was a hindrance to understanding.
- (i) Language – Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that it was not easy to translate.
- (ii) There were religious and customary differences.
- (iii) There was pride.
The point to be noted is that even after being aware of these problems, Alberuni was completely dependent on the works composed by the Brahmins. He depended on Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, works of Patanjali and Manusmriti etc. to understand Indian society.
Alberuni writes about Sanskrit that it is not easy to learn Sanskrit language because like Arabic language, the reach of this language is very wide in both words and variety, folklore. In this, many words root and derivative are used for the same thing.
Features of the writing work of Al-Biruni :-
Features of the writing work of Al-Biruni :- He used Arabic language in his writing work.
His approach to the writing style of these texts was critical.
His texts ranged from fables to astronomy and medical works.
Each chapter used a specific style, initially with a question, then a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and finally a comparison with other cultures.
Description of the caste system of Al-Biruni:-
The description of the caste system has been given by Alberuni, according to him there were four social varnas in India, although he wanted to show that 4 social varnas were also recognized in Persia .
- (i) Horsemen and ruling class
- (ii) Monks, priests and physicians
- (iii) Astronomers and other scientists
- (iv) Agriculturists and Craftsmen
However it states that in Islam all were considered equal and the differences were only in the beginning of religiosity. Despite accepting the Brahminical system in the context of the caste system, Alberuni did not accept the belief of impurity.
According to him the concept of impurity inherent in the caste system is against the laws of nature. He has also written that every thing which becomes impure tries and succeeds in regaining its original state of purity.
Alberuni writes that there is not much difference between Vaishya and Shudra Varna. Both of them live together in the same city and village. (together in the same houses and in the same dwellings)
Alvaruni's description of the caste system is strongly influenced by Sanskrit texts.
Life of Ibn Battuta :-
His travelogue written by Ibn Battuta in Arabic called Rih La, gives very rich and interesting information about the social and cultural life of the Indian subcontinent in the fourteenth century.
Born:- Tezier (Morocco) who was famous for his specialty on Islamic law or Sharia.
According to the tradition of his family, Ibn Battuta received literary and scriptural education at an early age.
Ibn Battuta considered the experiences acquired from travels as a more important source of knowledge than the proponents.
Unlike other members of his class, Ibn Battuta considered travel experiences to be a more important source of knowledge than books. He was very fond of traveling and went far and wide to learn about new countries and people.
Ibn Battuta's Journey :-
Thursday from his place of birth, without any co-travellers or karva, he went on a journey to India alone (1332 AD – 1333 AD)
Before leaving for India, Mecca, Syria, Persia, Yemen, Oman had traveled to many coastal ports of East Africa. Through Central Asia, Ibn Battuta reached Sindh by land route in 1333 AD.
Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed him as the Qazi of Delhi. Ibn Battuta stayed on this for many years, then he lost the confidence of the Sultan and was imprisoned. However, later he was again taken into the state service.
In 1342 AD, Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered to go to the Mongol ruler (China) as an emissary of the Sultan. Ibn Battuta went to the Malavar Coast. Then went to Maldives from there and then remained in the post of Qazi for 18 months.
Went to Sri Lanka from Maldives then traveled back to Malavar and Maldives. During this, Bengal and Assam also went to Sumatra and then from Sumatra to the Chinese port Jaytun.
Traveling in those days was not easy (safe). Ibn Battuta faced the attacks of bandits many times, that is why he liked to walk in Karwa with his companions.
Ibn Battuta was a stubborn traveller. When he went back his stories were recorded on the instructions of the local ruler. Ibnjuzai was appointed to write the memoirs of Ibn Battuta.
Coconut :-
Coconut was described by Ibn Battuta as a strange (astonishing) tree of a nature. Indians used to make rope in it or have it. Instead of iron kg, it used to sew the ship.
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Ibn Battuta also describes the paan. Ibn Battuta wrote about the betel vine that there is no fruit on it, it is grown only for the leaves. He was not familiar with coconut and paan before.
Description of cities by Ibn Battuta :-
According to him Delhi was the largest city of India. Daulatabad (Maharashtra) was also no less and in coming it challenged Delhi.
Delhi was a wealthy city. It had a rampart around it. There were 28 gates in this city. In which the Badaun Darwaza was the largest. Inside the Mandvi gate there was a grain of grain. The city of Delhi was an excellent graveyard (cemetery). Flowers like jasmine and rose were grown in the graveyard. Which used to bloom in all seasons.
Most of the cities had a mosque and a temple. In closed towns, places were also marked for public performances of dancers, musicians and singers. Although Ibn Battuta was not much interested in describing the prosperity of the cities.
Description of communication system by Ibn Battuta :-
Ibn Battuta gives an account of the postal system (communication system) of the Delhi Sultanate. Inns and rest houses or rest houses were established on almost all the trade routes.
Ibn Battuta was amazed to see the efficiency of the postal system. In this it became possible not only to send information over long distances and to motivate liberally but also to send goods at short notice.
The postal system was so efficient that where it used to take 50 days to travel from Singh to Delhi, the news of the spies reached the Sultan in just 5 days through this postal system.
There were 2 types of postal system in India :-
- (i) Horse postal system
- (ii) Pedestrian postal system
Horse postal system: The horse postal system was called Uluk. Which was driven by state horses established at a distance of every four mills.
Foot postal system: - There were 3 places in the foot post system. which was called the claim. The foot mail system was faster than the horse postal system. The postal system was used for sending information as well as for transporting the fruits of Khusasan.
François Bernier (a traveller) :-
François Bernier, a resident of France, was a French physician, political, philosopher and historian.
François Bernier lived in the Mughal court for 12 years from 1656 AD – 1668 AD. First as a physician to Shah Jahan's eldest son Darashikoh, later as an intellectual and scientist with a wealthy Danish Khan of the Mughal court.
Note :- The book written by Bernier: "Travels in the Mughal Empire" is Travels in Mughal Empire.
Features of Bernier's writing:
He dedicated his major work to the ruler of France, Louis the 14th .
In each of the illustrations Bernier sees India's position as inferior to Europe.
Bernier's works were published in France in 1670 AD – 1671 AD and within the next 5 years it was translated into English, Dutch, Japanese and Italian.
Bernier traveled with the Mughal army several times, once he also went to Kashmir.
Note :- Bernier's work Travel in the Mughal Empire (Journey with the Mughal Emperors)
Description of land ownership by Bernier :-
Regarding land ownership, Bernier writes that unlike Europe, there was a lack of private land ownership in India. The Mughal emperor was the owner of all the land. Who used to distribute it among his rich. which was harmful to the economy.
Due to state land ownership, the landholders could not give the land to their children, so they did not take interest in improving and investing in the land. This stopped the path of agriculture.
Description of Indian society by Bernier :-
Bernier writes that there was no middle class in India. India's agriculture was not good. A large part of the cultivable land is without agriculture due to lack of farmers, laborers and the air here is polluted.
Bernier warns that Europe will be devastated if the European rulers follow the Mughals. Bernier considers the lack of private land ownership at the root of most of India's problems.
The French philosopher Montesquieu used his account to develop the concept of absolutism. On this basis, Marx gave the theory of Asian mode of production.
Note:- Surprisingly, not a single official Mughal document indicates that the state was the sole owner of the land.
Description of the craftsmen by Bernier :-
In the context of craftsmen, Bernier writes that the craftsman was basically lazy. Whatever he did, he did it because of his own needs or other compulsions. The craftsmen had no motivation to improve their products as the profits were taken over by the state. So production was everywhere. Although he also believes that a large amount of precious metals used to come to India from all over the world.
Note: - Bernier was the only historian who gives a detailed account of the working of the state factory.
Description of cities by Bernier :-
About cities he writes that in the seventeenth century about 15% of the Indian population lived in cities. This ratio is higher than Europe at that time or even in spite of it, Bernier Indian cities are called Sivir Nagar. They were dependent on the state government.
Slaves and Maids :-
Slaves were freely sold and bought in the market during the medieval period. When Ibn Battuta reached Sindh, he bought horses/camels and slaves to Sultan Mahmud bin Tughlaq. Ibn Battuta tells that Mohammed bin Tughlaq was so impressed by the sermon of Nasiruddin that he gave one lakh taka and 200 slaves.
Tens had the following uses –
- (i) Some of the slaves of the Sultan were proficient in music.
- (ii) The Sultan also appointed maids to keep an eye on his nobles.
- (iii) Slaves were generally used for domestic labor only.
- (iv) Their services were used to transport men and women in palanquins or dolas.
- (v) The price of slaves, especially those slaves, which were needed for domestic labor, was very low.
tradition of Sati :-
Sati was a religious practice prevalent in some ancient Indian communities, in which after the death of a man, his wife self-sacrifice by entering his funeral pyre during his funeral.
Bernier has given a detailed description of the practice of Sati. He wrote that although some women happily embraced death, others were forced to die.
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History – Themes
in Indian History |
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Pol
Science – Contemporary World Politics |
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– Politics
in India since Independence |
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Geography – Indian
People and Economy |
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– Fundamental of Human Geography |
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Chapter 1: - Population: Distribution, Density, Growth
and Composition |
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Chapter 12: - Geographical Perspective on Selected
Issues and Problems |
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