Vedic Civilization :-
Note: - Vedic civilization came after the fall of Harappan civilization, Vedic civilization was a civilization created by Aryans.
The Vedic civilization was a rural civilization, which dates back to 1500 AD. Poo. to 600 AD Poo. The four Vedas were composed in the Vedic period itself, the Mahajanapada period came after the Vedic civilization, at this time new cities were developed.
Four Vedas :-
- (1) Rigveda
- (2) Yajurveda
- (3) Samaveda
- (4) Arthavaveda
A transitional period in the 6th century BCE:-
Early Indian history in the 6th century AD. Poo. Considered as an important transformative period. The reason for this is the development of early states and cities, the increasing use of iron and the circulation of coins.
During this time, different philosophical ideologies developed including Buddhism and Jainism. In the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, sixteen states are mentioned by the name Mahajanapada.
The sixth century BC has been considered a transition period for agriculture. During this period, iron plows were used, which made it easy to plow hard land. Paddy plantation started during this period. This increased the yield of crops.
Janpad and Mahajanapada :-
In the Rigvedic era, the states were called Jana. And in the later Vedic age the state was called Janapada.
In the 6th century BC, the various states which were visible on the political horizon of the country have been named as Mahajanapadas.
Various Mahajanapadas of this time have been mentioned in Aguntar Nikaya of Buddhist texts and Bhagwatisutra of Jainism. In these, the list of Aguntar body has been considered more reliable and certified.
In the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, sixteen states are mentioned by the name Mahajanapada. Although the table of names of Mahajanapadas is not uniform in these texts, but names like Vajji, Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti are often found. It is clear from this that the said Mahajanapadas must have been counted among the most important Mahajanapadas.
- Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by the king.
- But in the states named Gana and Sangha, a group of people ruled.
- Every district had its capital, which was surrounded by forts.
- More money was needed for the maintenance of the fortified capitals and for the initial armies and bureaucracy.
- The rulers collected taxes from the farmers and traders.
- It may happen that money is collected by looting neighboring states.
- Gradually, some states started keeping a standing army and bureaucracy.
Gana and Sangha:-
The word Gana – Gana was used for a group of many members.
Sangh – The word union is used for any organization or assembly.
There are many rulers in the Gana or Sangha, sometimes people ruled together. Decisions were taken through debate in the meetings. There was no participation of women, ten, and tremors in the meetings of the ganas. That's why they are not considered as democracies.
Lord Buddha and Lord Mahavir were both related to these ganas. Like the Vajji Sangha, in some states, the kings used to have collective control over many economic sources including land.
Magadha Mahajanapada :-
Magadha is situated in the modern Vihara state. Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada in the 6th to 4th centuries BC.
Initially Rajgriha was the capital of Magadha. Rajgriha was a fortified city nestled amidst the hills. Later in the 4th century BC, Pataliputra was named as the capital. (At present Pataliputra is called Patna) Many capitals were fortified by making high walls of wood, brick or stone.
Note: - Evidence of fort wall has been found from Koshambi.
Note:- Dr. Hemchandra Roy Chowdhury told something about Magadha in this way.
The early history of Magadha begins with King Bimbisara in Haryaka clan, the path he led Magadha to Digvijay and Utkarsh, it ended only when Ashoka gave peace to his sword in its sheath after the war of Kalinga.
Why was Magadha Mahajanapada so prosperous and what were the reasons for becoming a powerful Mahajanapada?
- It was naturally safe. There were hills around this district which naturally protected it.
- There was fertile land here. The means of irrigation were available from the water of the Ganges and Son rivers, due to which the crop was good here.
- The population here was more than the districts.
- Elephants were available in the forests. Elephants were found in the forest which were very useful for the army.
- He was a capable and ambitious ruler. The kings of Magadha were very capable and powerful.
- Irrigation was done by the waters of Ganga and Son rivers, due to which there was an increase in trade.
- There were iron mines from which weapons were made in the army.
But the early Jain and Buddhist writers have attributed the fame of Magadha to various rulers and their policies. For example, famous kings like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadmanand were very ambitious rulers and their ministers used to implement their policies.
An early empire (Maurya Empire) 321-185 BC :-
With the development of Magadha came the rise of the Maurya Empire.
The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandra Gupta Maurya (321 BC) which extended west to Afghanistan and Balochistan.
Chandragupta Maurya :-
Chandragupta Maurya was born in 340 AD in the Bihar district of Patna. He was the first Hindu emperor of India. He founded the Maurya Empire. Chandragupta was Maurya's guru (Vishnugupta, Kautilya, Chanakya).
Sources of information about Maurya Dynasty :-
sculpture
Contemporary works Indica book written by Megasthenes: Information has been received from the book written by the Greek ambassador minister who came to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
Arthashastra Book (Written by Chanakya): Some parts of it were composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, this book gives information about the Maurya rulers.
From Jain, Buddhist, Puranic texts: Jain texts, Buddhist texts, mythological texts and many other types of texts give information about the Maurya Empire.
From Ashoka's Pillars: The pillars written by Ashoka also give important information about the Maurya Empire.
Ashoka was the first emperor who got his messages written on natural stones and polished pillars for officials and subjects.
Administration in Maurya Empire :-
There were five major political centers of the Maurya Empire.
Capital – Pataliputra and four provincial centers –
- Takshshila ,
- Ujjayini,
- Tosli,
- Suvarnagiri
It is believed that there would not have been a uniform administrative system everywhere in this empire because the mountainous region of Afghanistan is on the other side of the Orissa Coastal region.
Taxila and Ujjayini were both important long distance trade routes.
Suvarnagiri (mountain of gold) was a gold mine in Karnataka.
In the operation of the empire, it was necessary to maintain traffic both by land and by rivers. It would take several weeks or months to get from the capital to the provinces.
Army system :-
According to Megasthenes, there were 1 committee and 6 sub -committees for the operation of the army in the Maurya Empire .
- 1. To operate the Navy.
- 2 . The other's job is to handle the transport and food.
- 3. The third task was to conduct foot soldiers.
- 4. The work of the fourth is to conduct the equestrian.
- 5. The task of the fifth is to conduct the charioteer.
- 6. The sixth task is to operate weapons.
Other Subcommittees :-
The responsibility of the second subcommittee was of different types. like :-
- arranging bullock carts for carrying equipment
- To arrange food for the soldiers.
- To arrange fodder for the animals.
- And to appoint servants and craftsmen to look after the soldiers.
Megasthenes :-
Megasthenes was the ambassador of Greece and a great historian.
Megasthenes wrote a book named Indica, from this book we get information about the Maurya Empire.
Megasthenes told that there was 1 committee and 6 sub -committees for the operation of the army in the Maurya Empire .
Emperor Ashoka :-
Ashoka is one of the most interesting people in Indian history. Ashoka was identified in the 1830s. When James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company, deciphered the Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts. Ashoka's inscriptions are in Prakrit. Whereas in the Aramaic and Greek languages found from the northwest.
Most of the Prakrit inscriptions were written in the Brahmi script while some of the northwestern inscriptions were written in Kharoshthi. Aramaic and Greek scripts were used in inscriptions found in Afghanistan. These scripts were used in the earliest inscriptions and coins.
Prinsep learns that most of the inscriptions and coins now bear the name of Priyadassi, the king with a handsome face. The name of the king Ashoka is also written on some inscriptions.
Ashoka abandoned the war after the battle of Kalinga and got the policy of Dhamma Vijay inscribed on the inscriptions so that even his descendants would not fight.
Meaning of Brahmi and Kharoshthi script :-
The meaning of Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts was derived by James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company in 1830.
Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts were used on early inscriptions and coins.
James Prinsep came to know that most of the inscriptions and coins had the name of the king Piadassi.
Piyadassi :-
Piyadassi means a king with a handsome face, that is, a king who has a beautiful face.
How was Kharoshthi script read?
The Kharoshthi script was used in the inscriptions found from the north-west.
The Hindu-Greek rulers ruled in this area and the coins made by them give information about Kharoshthi script.
In the coins made by him, the names of the kings were written in Greek and Kharoshthi.
Matched letters among European scholars studying Greek.
How was the Brahmi script read?
Brahmi is a very ancient script.
Almost all the languages we read in India today have their root in the Brahmi script.
In the 18th century, European scholars, with the help of pundits from India, read many manuscripts in Bengali and Devanagari scripts and tried to match the letters with the ancient letters.
Several decades later, in 1838 AD, the Brahmi script of Ashoka's time was published by James Prinsup. meaning in
What were the coins like?
Coins were used to trade.
Coins made of silver and copper (6th century BC) were the first to be used.
These coins were found when the excavation was being done.
These coins were issued by the king or it may be that some rich merchants issued coins.
The first coins with the names and pictures of the rulers were issued by the Hindu Greek rulers.
Gold coins were first issued by the Kushan kings, and the weight and size of these coins used to be similar to the Roman coins of that time.
In areas like Punjab and Haryana, thousands of copper coins were issued by the Yaudheya rulers and thousands of them have been found there.
The best gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers.
Battle of Kalinga :-
8 years after the ascension of Ashoka, that is, in 261 BC , Ashoka fought with Kalinga. According to Pliny, this incident happened after the coronation of Ashoka. According to Pliny, there were 60,000 foot 1000 horsemen 700 elephants in Kalinga's army . Ashoka's army was more powerful. The ruler of Kalinga bravely faced Ashoka, but he was defeated after a long war. 1,500 000 soldiers , many lakhs of the people taken prisoner in the war died of fear.
According to Dr Hemchand Roy Chowdhury, this was the first and last war of Ashoka after becoming the emperor of Magadha. In this war, Ashoka made an unprecedented change in his life, along with this he took a vow that he would never use weapons and would run the administration according to the scriptures.
Kingship principle of Ashoka :-
After the Kalinga war, Ashoka adopted the policy of peace and friendship. After this Ashoka issued two orders which are safe at a place called Dhauli and Jogarh. It has been written in these orders that the order of Emperor Ashoka is that the subjects should be treated like a son, the public should be loved. People should not be punished or tortured without any reason. Justice should be done to the people.
Meaning of Dhamma:-
Dhamma Ek Niyamavali Ashoka propagated Dhamma through his inscriptions.
- Respect for elders in this.
- Generosity towards sanyasis and brahmins.
- Generous treatment of servants and slaves.
- Respect for other's religions and traditions.
Ashoka's Dhamma :-
The principles of Dhamma were simple and universal.
Through Dhamma, people's life will be good in this world and in the world hereafter.
Ashoka's personal religion was Buddhism. He did not try to impose his religion on any religion. He never preached the elemental principles of Buddhism, the four meaning truths or the eightfold path.
He propagated such moral principles which are acceptable to all religions, the principles of his religion were practical and negative aspects.
What did Ashoka do for the promotion of Dhamma?
Ashoka appointed a special officer class for the promotion of Dhamma, which was called Dhamma Mahamatya. He has written the thirteenth inscription that I have appointed Dhamma Mahamatyas for all religious faiths. He will look after all religions and religious sects. Those officers used to come and go from different places. They were paid salaries for preaching work. His job was to meet the worldly and emergent needs of the master, slave, rich, poor, old, youth.
Main features of Ashoka's Dhamma:-
Ashoka's Dhamma was a moral law or general code of thought. Its main features were:
Leading a moral life: According to this Dhamma it has been said that man should lead a normal and virtuous way of life.
Control over desires: According to this Dhamma, it has been said to control external pomp and control over one's desires.
Respect for other religions: According to Ashoka's religion, there should be tolerance towards other religions.
Not to harm animals: According to Ashoka's Dhamma, animals and birds should not be killed or harmed.
To be kind to all: To be kind to one's servant and younger than you and to be respectful to all.
Respect for all: To respect everyone younger than yourself and elder than yourself, parents, teachers, friends, monks, sannyasis.
Social, Economic and Cultural Conditions of the Maurya Empire
social life :-
Ashoka's writings, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Megasthenes' travelogue throws light on the social life of the Maurya period.
Social class and caste system :-
- (a) Information about Kautilya Arthashastra Ashram system.
- (b) Kshatriya and Vaishya are distinguished.
- (c) People had a sense of reverence for the Brahmins.
- (d) According to Megasthenes' Indica 7 species are mentioned :-
- (philosopher, farmer, ahir, artisan, soldier, inspector, councilor)
Status of women :-
- (a) Freedom and equality were achieved.
- (b) Remarriage and divorce of women were allowed.
- (c) was committed to participate in public works.
- (d) Women used to complete religious works with their husbands.
- (e) Women used to work as spies in the administration.
- (f) Was also trained as a soldier.
- (g) The affluent section of the society accepts the practice of polygamy.
- (h) Some women used to do prostitute as a profession, they were called Ganika or Roopjeeta.
- (i) According to Chanakya, a woman could beget a son from any other person to protect the lineage.
- (j) According to the Greek writers, the women of the royal family could take the rule in their hands if needed.
Lifestyle and dress :-
- (a) Houses – Buildings were luxurious.
- (b) There has been a period of prosperity in the Maurya Empire.
- (c) Used to wear cotton clothes.
- (d) The clothes were flamboyant and cloaked.
- (e) The people were mourning the sparkling diamonds and jewels.
Meal :-
Milk, Curd, Ghee, Barley, Rice
Some people also used to consume meat and alcohol. The food was made delicious.
After coming under the influence of Buddhism, the consumption of the month was reduced.
Megasthenes writes that when the Indians sat down to eat, a tripod shaped table was placed in front of each member. On top of which boiled rice was first served in a golden cup and after that the dish was served.
Entertainment :-
Dance, music, singing, nuts, horse racing, animal war, nokayan, gambling, archery were prevalent in the society.
Economic life:
The economy of the Maurya Empire was based on agriculture, animal husbandry and commerce. Those were called symmetrical touch talks.
Reasons for the fall of the Maurya Empire:-
- weak and incompetent successor
- weakness of central government
- administration of the empire
- tyranny of provincial rulers
- tyrannical ruler
- the gates of conspiracies
- commercial purpose
Is the Maurya Empire important?
In the 9th century, when historians began to compose the early history of India, the Maurya Empire was considered the main period of history. India was a slave at this time.
- evidence of marvelous art
- Statues (Identity of the Empire)
- Records (different from others)
- Ashoka was a great ruler
- The Maurya Empire lasted only for 150 years.
The kings and chieftains of the south :-
In South India (Tamil Nadu / Andhra Pradesh / Kerala), chieftains like Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas emerged. These states were prosperous and stable.
It is mentioned in the ancient Tamil Sangam texts.
Sardar. The kings used to collect revenue from long distance trade.
There were also Satavahana kings among them.
Sardar and Sardar :-
Sardar is a powerful person whose position may or may not be hereditary. His supporters are his family members. The functions of the Sardar include conducting special rituals, leading in times of war and playing the role of mediator in resolving disputes. He takes gifts from the people under him (while the king collects the rent), and distributes that gift among his supporters. There is usually no standing army or officers in the chieftain.
Sardar's work :-
- conduct the ritual
- lead the war
- fight, dispute, settle disputes
- Sardar takes presents from his subordinates
- distributes that gift among his supporters
- There is no standing army or officers in Sardari.
- Information about these states comes from ancient Tamil Sangam texts.
- These texts contain details about the chieftains.
- Many chieftains and kings also collected revenue from long distance trade.
- Among them the Satavahana and Shaka kings are prominent.
- The chieftain takes a gift from the people under him, distributes that gift among his supporters, there is no standing army or officers in the chieftain.
Divine King :-
- The king used to achieve high status by worshiping the deity. The Kushan ruler did this.
- In U. P., the Kushan rulers established a huge body statue at a temple of Mat near Mathura.
- It was done in Afghanistan too, through these idols, the king used to present himself as a god.
Gupta period:
The period of Gupta emperors is called golden age in Indian history. During this period, many meritorious and powerful kings organized North India under one umbrella and established order from governance and prosperity and peace in the country.
Dr. Ramshankar Tripathi says that for 200 years , the Gupta emperors provided political unity to the whole of North India and the North-West regions. Freed India from foreign power.
Rulers of Gupta period :-
- Shrigupta
- Ghatotkach
- Chandragupta I
- Samudragupta
- ramgupta
- Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
- Kumaragupta
- skandagupta
Sources of information about the history of Gupta period :-
Literature, inscriptions, seals, pieces, monuments, accounts of foreign travelers
Literature :-
- Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Brahman Purana
- Raghuvansh and Abhijnanshakuntalam by Kalidasa
- Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta
- Machakatikam by Shudak
Record :-
- Inscriptions inscribed on rocks and copper sheets
- Prayag and Airan inscriptions of Samudragupta
- Mehrauli and inscriptions of Chandragupta II
- Kumargupta Milsad inscriptions, Gadwa and Mandsaur inscriptions
- Inner, Kahom, Girnar inscriptions of Skandagupta
Memorial :-
- Bishnu temple of Tigwa (Jabalpur)
- Shiva Temple of Bhumra
- Nachankuthar Shiva Temple
- Dashavatar Temple of Deogarh
- Inside Village (Kanpur) Eto's Temple
- inner pillar of skandagupta
- Chandragupta II Mehrauli Iron Pillar (Delhi)
Gupta period and administration :-
Harishena, the court poet of Prayag Prashist Samudragupta, wrote in Sanskrit / This inscription is written on the Ashoka Pillar in Allahabad. In this Samudragupta has been praised as a warrior, king, poet, scholar.
Samudragupta's policies towards different kings :-
- (i) Aryavarta got 9 states of North India in his empire.
- (ii) defeated the 12 rulers of the south and returned the kingdom.
- (iii) The Kushanas, the Shakas, and the rulers of Sri Lanka accepted the supremacy of Samudragupta.
- (iv) Many ganas from neighboring countries/states of Assam, Coastal Bengal, Nepal, North West brought gifts to Samudragupta.
Samudragupta is shown playing the veena on a coin. Samudragupta's mother Kumaradevi was a Lichchavi girl.
Samudragupta's father Chandragupta I was such a Gupta ruler who received the title of Maharajadhiraja.
Kalidas and Aryabhata were in the court of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). Chandragupta II defeated the rulers of western India.
Many posts of this period became hereditary. For example, Harishena, like his father, was a Mahadandanayak, that is, a judicial officer.
Sometimes the same person was in multiple positions. For example Harishena was a Mahadandanayak as well as Kumaramatya and Sanghi Vigraha (Minister of War and Peace).
The nature of local administration or decentralization was also present.
The main participants in the local administration of the towns such as the city shreshti, the chief banker, the merchant of the city, the Sarthavaha (the leader of the convoy of merchants) was the first Kulik as the chief craftsman. Kasyastha was the head of the clerks.
Land donation and new elite villagers :-
Evidence of land donation is found from the early centuries of AD. Many of these are mentioned in the inscriptions.
Some of these inscriptions were written on stones but most were inscribed on copper plates. Which was probably given to those people as proof. Those who used to take land.
Evidence of land donation. They were generally given to religious institutions or Brahmins. Some of these inscriptions were in Sanskrit.
Prabhavatigupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers of early India, Chandragupta II (375-415 BC). He was married into the Vakataka family of the Deccan Plateau, an important ruling dynasty.
According to Sanskrit scriptures, Mahilao did not have independent rights over property like land, but an inscription shows that Pramavati was the owner of the land and she had also donated, the reason for this may be that she was a queen (something known in early Indian history). was one of the queens) and so this has been her example. It is also possible that the scriptures are not applied equally from place to place.
The effect of land donation remains a matter of important debate among historians.
How was the image of the king among the public?
- There is not much evidence for this.
- Historians tried to find out from the Jataka tales.
- These stories were oral. Then later they were written in Pali language.
- Gandtindu Jataka Story → The misery of the subjects was told.
- Methods of increasing yield from 6th century BC:-
- Plow was used to increase the yield
- The iron husk was used, it also played an important role in increasing the yield.
- To increase the crop, the farming community together started making new means of irrigation.
- To increase the yield of the crop, irrigation means like ponds, wells and canals were made at many places, which played an important role in increasing the yield.
Coins and kings:
- With the introduction of coins, trade became easier.
- Silver. Coins struck with copper were used.
- These coins have been found in excavation.
- There were also emblems on the struck coin.
- Coins were issued by kings.
- The first coins were issued by the Greek rulers with the statue and name of the rulers.
- Gold coins were first issued by the Kushan kings.
- Gold coins were used in exchange of valuation goods.
- Roman coins are found in large numbers in South India.
- The most attractive gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers.
Compatibility of records:-
Lightly engraved letters: In some records the letters are lightly passed, making them very difficult to read.
Missing letters of some inscriptions: Some inscriptions have been destroyed and some inscriptions have lost letters, due to which they are very difficult to read.
Difficulty in understanding the actual meaning: In some inscriptions, it is not possible to fully understand the real meaning of the words, due to which difficulty arises.
In the inscriptions are not written the tasks of daily life: In the inscriptions only the more important things of King Maharaja are written from which we do not get to know about the daily activities of the common people in daily life.
The views of the record maker: By looking at the record, it is known that we get information about the way the person who has made the record has his thoughts.
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History – Themes
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Pol
Science – Contemporary World Politics |
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– Politics
in India since Independence |
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Geography – Indian
People and Economy |
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– Fundamental of Human Geography |
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Chapter 1: - Population: Distribution, Density, Growth
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Chapter 12: - Geographical Perspective on Selected
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